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Paleo-Christian Press Introduction Content warning : We examine homosexuality in the Bible from a historical-grammatical perspective. Our goal is to equip Christians to apply Scripture faithfully in real life, showing how to extend both compassion and correction to those experiencing same-sex attraction. By understanding the biblical text in its original context, we can engage others with truth and love, striking a balance between conviction and care. The apostle Paul addressed "men who have sex with men" and "those practicing homosexuality" in 1 Corinthians 6:9  and 1 Timothy 1:10 . Before examining the underlying Greek, we must recognize that modern terms refer to different aspects of same-sex attraction. The term "homosexuality," which entered the English language in the late 1800s, refers to an abstract desire for one's own sex. By contrast, the Greek word Paul used in both passages, arsenokoitēs ( G733 ), describes same-sex behavior rather than orientation. The word breaks down as follows: airō ( G142 , "to lift upward") → arsēn ( G730 , "male") + koitē ( G2845 , "bed," especially in a marital context). An arsenokoitēs was therefore a man who lifted another man onto a bed for sexual intercourse—the active partner, presumably the stronger of the two. Arsenokoitēs was rare in ancient Greek literature, but it does appear in the Septuagint, the ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament ( see here ). Paul derived the term from the Septuagint reading of Leviticus 20:13 ("If a man has sexual relations with a man as one does with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable.") See here: Kai hos an koimēthē meta arsenos koitēn gunakois bdelugma epoiēsan amphoteroi. καὶ ὃς ἂν κοιμηθῇ μετὰ ἄρσενος κοίτην γυναικός βδέλυγμα ἐποίησαν ἀμφότεροι. If whoever sleeps with [a] male sexually [as with a] woman, [an] offense did they both. Moreover, Paul wrote to Hellenistic Jews who were familiar with Leviticus, not to Greek Gentiles who were unfamiliar with it. If he had addressed a Greek audience, he likely would have used erastēs ("erotic lover") and erōmenos ("erotic beloved") for the active and passive partners. The arsenokoitēs stood in contrast to the other man, a malakos ( G3120 ), the "soft" passive partner. The adjective malakos also appears in Matthew 11:8  and Luke 7:25 , where Jesus refers to Herod's "soft" robes. There, "soft" highlights the person's age or vulnerability rather than effeminacy. Similarly, today we might describe a young person as "softhearted" without implying a gender bias. This linguistic and cultural context has led many biblical scholars to interpret these passages in relation to pederasty —sexual relations between a man and a younger male. While pederasty sometimes occurred in pagan cultic prostitution, it was not limited to that context. Paleo-Christian Press Greco-Roman Context of Homosexuality Many Greeks and Romans believed that sexual intercourse should occur only between a man and a woman for procreation, reserving pleasure in same-sex relationships for slaves, prostitutes, and others barred from Roman citizenship. When biblical translators interpret malakos in the context of prostitution and other exploitative relationships, they often focus too much on slang or secondary meanings. Even today, we use the term "soft" to criticize weakness or praise kindness. Considering the socioeconomic context, malakos reflects the perspective of a "man-bedder" seeking to exploit a vulnerable outcast rather than describing effeminacy. In Greece and Rome, male same-sex relations rarely expressed mutual affection between citizens; instead, they served as a means for the powerful to exploit the oppressed. For women, homosexuality carried a different social dynamic. In a strongly patriarchal society, lesbian relationships offered a sense of role reversal and autonomy. The term "lesbian" originally referred to residents of Lesbos (Greek: Lesvos ), an island in the Aegean Sea. The poet Sappho (c. 610–570 BC) hailed from Mytilene (Greek: Mutilēnē , G3412 ), a city still on Lesbos and mentioned by Luke in Acts 20:14 . Sappho remains a controversial figure, as scholars debate whether she was a proto-feminist, a homosexual, or a prostitute. Her poetry and teaching at Lesbos inspired generations of women to identify as "lesbians." Regardless of the debates, her work provides sociopolitical commentary on ancient Greece, offering insights that resonate even today. Sappho led a school of disciples (Greek: thiasos ) devoted to the pagan goddess Aphrodite. While some of her writings suggest desire for men, many passages hint at female homoeroticism within her thiasos . These relationships often prepared women for marriage, highlighting how social and erotic education intersected in her community. Today, many commentators argue that Paul condemned homosexuality only in the context of pagan fertility cults, suggesting a possible exception for committed same-sex relationships. They also project modern assumptions onto ancient Greek culture, claiming such practices were rare. In reality, consensual same-sex relationships were widespread among Gentiles throughout the Mediterranean, particularly in the form of pederasty. Yet, contrary to common assumptions, not all Greeks approved of homosexuality. The well-known Greek philosopher Plato (c. 428–348 BC) wrote: ​ Whether one observes earnestly or in jest, one certainly should not fail to keep in mind that when a male unites with a female for procreation, the pleasure experienced is held to be due to nature, but contrary to nature when a male mates with a male or female with female, and that those first guilty of such enormities were compelled by their slavery to pleasure. And we all accuse the Cretans of concocting the story about Ganymede. Because it was the belief that they derived their laws from Zeus, they added this story about him so that they might follow his example and enjoy this pleasure as well. Now, with the story itself, we have no more concerns. Still, when men are investigating the subject of laws, they deal almost entirely with pleasures and pains, whether in states or as individuals ( Laws 1.636 ). ​ Similarly, the Greek comic poet Aristophanes (c. 450–388 BC) mocked the well-known same-sex relationships of Agathon (c. 445–400 BC), one of his contemporaries, in Women at the Thesmophoria . Taken together with Plato's writings, these examples show that many Greeks viewed same-sex relationships as a violation of natural law and societal norms. Paleo-Christian Press Hebrew Context of Homosexuality ​ By now, it is clear that the scriptural view of homosexuality leans heavily toward the masculine. In ancient Hebrew culture, where men typically led the family, it was shameful for them to neglect this responsibility for mere pleasure. Unlike the Romans and Greeks, the Hebrews prioritized survival over balancing family and entertainment. Socioeconomic realities shaped this perspective: the Hebrews never had an empire and were often on the move or surrounded by hostile nations. Men needed to fight and protect their families, so homosexuality threatened both survival and continuity. Fewer children increased vulnerability to attack and the possible destruction of the people. High infant mortality rates intensified this fear, making children a precious resource. In the ancient Near East, many people turned to nature religions, invoking gods and goddesses for protection and abundance. Because femininity symbolized childbirth and continuity, it extended to agriculture and religious practices. The Hebrews struggled with a recurring devotion to these false idols while paying lip service to God. Only after Israel's exile to Babylon did they finally abandon these pagan religions and turn fully to Yahweh. ​ As noted above, Paul drew on the holiness code in Leviticus when addressing same-sex relationships between men. The Old Testament authors broadly did not address lesbianism, and Paul was the first biblical writer to mention it explicitly. He writes: Because of this, God gave them over to shameful lusts. Even their women exchanged natural sexual relations for unnatural ones. In the same way, the men also abandoned natural relations with women and were inflamed with lust for one another. Men committed shameful acts with other men and received in themselves the due penalty for their error ( Rom. 1:26–27 ). One of Paul's contemporaries, Philo of Alexandria (c. 15 BC–AD 50), expressed an equally severe view of same-sex relations, condemning them as contrary to nature and virtue: ​ As men, being unable to bear satiety of these things discreetly, get restive like cattle, become stiff-necked, and discard the laws of nature, pursuing a tremendous and intemperate indulgence of gluttony, drinking, and unlawful connections, for not only did they go mad after women, and defile the marriage bed of others, but also those who were men lusted after one another, doing inappropriate things, and not regarding or respecting their common nature, and though eager for children, they were convicted by having only an abortive offspring, but the conviction produced no advantage since they were overcome by violent desire. So, by degrees, the men became accustomed to being treated like women, and in this way engendered among themselves the disease of females and intolerable evil; for they not only, as to effeminacy and delicacy, became like women in their persons, but they also made their souls most ignoble, corrupting in this way the whole race of man, as far as depended on them. At all events, if the Greeks and barbarians were to have agreed together and to have adopted the commerce of the citizens of this city, their cities, one after another, would have become desolate, as if they had been emptied by a pestilence ( On Abraham 26 ). ​ By the first century, many Jewish commentators interpreted the story of Sodom and Gomorrah as God's judgment against the sins later prohibited in Leviticus: incest, inhospitality, rape, and homosexuality. Philo's writings reflect this context of Sodom. Similarly, the Jewish-Roman historian Josephus (c. AD 37–100) wrote: ​ About this time, the Sodomites grew proud on account of their riches and great wealth; they became unjust towards men and impious towards God, insomuch that they did not call to mind the advantages they received from him: they hated strangers and abused themselves with Sodomitical practices. God was therefore much displeased at them and determined to punish them for their pride, overthrow their city, and lay waste to their country until there should neither plant nor fruit grow out of it. . . . Now when the Sodomites saw the young men be of beautiful countenances, and this to an extraordinary degree, and that they took up their lodgings with Lot, they resolved themselves to enjoy these beautiful boys by force and violence; and when Lot urged them to sobriety, and not to offer anything immodest to the strangers, but to have regard to their lodging in his house; and promised that if their inclinations could not be governed, he would expose his daughters to their lust, instead of these strangers; neither thus were they made ashamed ( Antiquities of the Jews 1.11 ). ​ First-century Jews viewed homosexuality as one of the reasons God destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah. The prophet Ezekiel wrote, "Now this was the sin of your sister Sodom: She and her daughters were arrogant, overfed, and unconcerned; they did not help the poor and needy. They were haughty and did detestable things before me. Therefore, I did away with them as you have seen" ( Ezek. 16:49–50 ). The phrase "detestable things" refers to the same-sex acts of the men with the angels. Jude, one of Jesus' brothers, affirmed this understanding: "In a similar way, Sodom and Gomorrah and the surrounding towns gave themselves up to sexual immorality and perversion. They serve as an example of those who suffer the punishment of eternal fire" ( Jude 1:7 ). When reading these passages, it is essential to remember that God judged Sodom and Gomorrah for multiple offenses. Focusing on only one sin over the others misses the broader point: God condemns arrogance, injustice, inhospitality, and sexual immorality alike. Paleo-Christian Press Conclusion ​ Using the historical-grammatical method, the original texts reveal a clear understanding of same-sex behavior. God's rainbow covenant belongs to him alone ( Gen. 9:13–16 ), yet he commands us to love our neighbor as ourselves (e.g., Lev. 19:18 ; Matt. 19:19 , 22:39 )—forbidding bigotry while upholding his truth. Marriage is a sacrament and a covenant between a man and a woman to advance God's kingdom ( Gen. 1:26–27 , 2:24 ; Matt. 19:4–6 ; Mark 10:6–9 ; Eph. 5:32 ). Scripture focuses on behavior, not orientation. Paul regarded homosexual desire, like all sin, as a consequence of the fall ( Rom. 1:26–32 ). making modern debates about orientation secondary. Research confirms that same-sex attraction may arise from biological, psychological, and social factors, yet experiencing attraction does not necessitate acting on it. Consider this statement by the American Psychological Association:   There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual, gay, or lesbian orientation. Although much research has examined the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or factors. Many think that nature and nurture both play complex roles; most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation. God calls us to pursue holiness and self-control, loving others while upholding his design for sexual behavior and marriage. Scripture, cultural context, and linguistic analysis converge to distinguish desire from sinful action. We must exemplify Jesus' love without compromising divine truth, guiding others toward obedience, restoration, and life as God intends. In short, we must uphold sexual morality, honor the covenant of marriage, and offer compassionate correction. Loving others does not mean abandoning God's truth; it means leading them to the fullness of life in his design. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of heaven and earth. You are truth and justice. Stir hearts to honor you. Give leaders courage to defend life, marriage, and your commands. Help your people love boldly and find their identity in you. Through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen .​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. ​ Bateman IV, Herbert W. Interpreting the General Letters: An Exegetical Handbook . Edited by John D. Harvey. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2013. ​ Brawley, Robert L., ed. Biblical Ethics & Homosexuality: Listening to Scripture . Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1996. ​ Brooten, Bernadette J. Love Between Women: Early Christian Responses to Female Homoeroticism . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. DeYoung, Kevin. What Does the Bible Really Teach About Homosexuality? Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2015. Dover, K. J. Greek Homosexuality . London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2016. Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Anchor Yale Bible—First Corinthians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary . New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. ​ Fortson, S. Donald, III, and Rollin G. Grams. Unchanging Witness: The Consistent Christian Teaching on Homosexuality in Scripture and Tradition . Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016. ​ Gagnon, Robert A. The Bible and Homosexual Practice: Texts and Hermeneutics . Nashville: Abingdon, 2001. ​ Greenberg, David F. The Construction of Homosexuality . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. Halperin, David M. One Hundred Years of Homosexuality: And Other Essays on Greek Love . New York: Routledge, 1990. Josephus. The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Version . Translated by Whiston, William. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987. ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV, Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. Loader, William, Megan K. DeFranza, Wesley Hill, and Stephen R. Holmes. Two Views on Homosexuality, the Bible, and the Church . Counterpoints. Edited by Preston Sprinkle and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. McKnight, Scot, Lynn H. Cohick, and Nijay K. Gupta, eds. Dictionary of Paul and His Letters: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship . 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2023. Mendelsohn, Daniel. "Girl, Interrupted." The New Yorker . March 9, 2015. [ link ] . Philo. The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Version . Translated by C. D. Yonge. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993. Plato. Plato in Twelve Volumes , vols. 10 and 11. Translated by R. G. Bury. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968. ​ Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020. "Understanding Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality." American Psychological Association. October 29, 2008. [ link ] .

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Christian theologians study gender roles through three main perspectives: complementarianism, mutualism, and egalitarianism. Complementarianism  holds that men and women are equal in value but have different, complementary roles in the home and the church. Mutualism  describes a partnership in which men and women share authority and responsibility, showing mutual submission while recognizing distinct functions. Egalitarianism —from the French word égalitaire , meaning "equal"—holds that men and women are equal in both worth and role, placing no limits on their responsibilities or leadership. The table below shows the main differences among these three theological perspectives. The mutualist view proclaims the inherent equality of men and women as co-heirs in Christ, echoing this biblical truth: "There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus" ( Gal. 3:28 ). This perspective upholds the value and dignity of every individual, regardless of gender, and champions collaboration and shared leadership within the church and society. It celebrates the diverse gifts and callings of both men and women, encouraging full participation in every aspect of ministry and service. Embracing mutualism cultivates a vibrant, dignified community where the gifts and contributions of all members are honored, amplified, and empowered for the glory of God. Courtesy of LightWorkers Media Made in God's Image ​ Many readers assume that the consequence God gave to Eve for her sin in the Garden of Eden indicates that he always intended women to be submissive to men ( Gen. 3:16 ). Yet long before sin entered the world, God declared that he "created humankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them" ( Gen. 1:27 ; see  " Humankind & Ancestral Sin "). Subjugation of women is therefore a consequence of evil, not part of God's perfect design. When God removed one of Adam's ribs to form Eve, he chose a symbol of mutuality, not oppression. The Hebrew noun tzela ( H6763 ), translated "rib" in Genesis 2:21–22 , literally means "side." Even today, "by your side" conveys a sense of solidarity and equality. Had God wanted to signify inferiority, he could have used the foot, which in ancient Near Eastern culture symbolized filth and subjugation—a connection we can infer from the practice of foot-washing at the Last Supper ( John 13:8 ). Moreover, God never commanded Adam to dominate Eve but to care for her. She was to be his "suitable helper" (Hebrew: ezer kenegdo , H5828 / H5048 ), a companion at his side ( Gen. 2:18 ). Just as God calls men to find rest and avoid the weariness, pain, and hardship that come from relentless toil ( Matt. 11:28–29 ; Heb. 4:9–10 ), he calls women to share equality, free from the struggle for power or domination ( Gen. 3:16–17 ; Luke 7:44 , 50 ). God's design for male and female reflects mutuality, dignity, and partnership in every sphere of life. Courtesy of Salem Web Network Women in the Old Testament​ In the Hebrew Bible, women often appear as homemakers, mothers, and caregivers. Sarah, the wife of Abraham, exemplified this role so fully that the apostle Peter writes, "They submitted themselves to their own husbands, like Sarah, who obeyed Abraham and called him her lord. You are her daughters if you do what is right and do not give way to fear" ( 1 Pet. 3:5–6 ). In our modern culture, fear often dominates, especially in literal battles of the sexes. As women increasingly work outside the home, homemakers must defend their values and dignity. Yet this tension is hardly new. In ancient Greece, philosophers such as Socrates (c. 470–399 BC) and Plato (428/27–348/47 BC) urged men and women to entrust the city-state with the care and upbringing of children while pursuing success and knowledge (cf. Republic 5 ). This ancient Greek custom clearly did not reflect proto-feminism—men in the community continued to expect women to be publicly available as sexual partners outside of marriage. To Jewish ears, such ideas were deeply pagan and contrary to God's law. Nevertheless, many modern beliefs about public education and cultural attitudes toward homemakers can be traced back more to Plato than to the Bible. There is no inherent conflict between choosing to remain at home with one's children and striving to be a corporate executive; yet cultural and ecclesial pressures often judge one path while condemning the other. The scriptures offer both "Sarah" and "Deborah" models. Deborah served as a judge of Israel during a national crisis ( Judg. 4–5 ). In antiquity, a judge held authority comparable to a modern president, constrained by the legal code. The Israelites trusted Deborah to administer justice under the Law of Moses, rather than relying on inheritance or dynastic privilege. Deborah executed the law God had given at Mount Sinai ( Exod. 34:32 ), demonstrating that women could exercise authority faithfully. The Law of Moses also provides the framework for the "Proverbs 31 woman" complementarians often cite in arguments for female submission. Proverbs 31:10–31 naturally concludes this section of the Old Testament references. It begins with a "wife of noble character" who strengthens and supports her husband. This ode contrasts the manipulative adulteress at the start of Proverbs (e.g., Prov. 2:16 ), leaving male readers with a robust vision of a capable woman. King Solomon, who sometimes embodied both the faithful husband and the foolish adulterer, presents a nuanced portrait. In verses 13–16 , the woman is a skilled breadwinner, adept in domestic and international business. She supervises younger women on her estate and even purchases land herself, demonstrating initiative and autonomy. She exercises to maintain fitness, handles business affairs, and faces hardships head-on. Her leadership enhances her husband's reputation—not as a trophy wife, but as a godly partner. She shows generosity to the poor and provides her family and customers with the best resources. The Proverbs 31 woman defies the stereotype of being "barefoot, pregnant, and in the kitchen." She is a familial, socioeconomic, political, and, most importantly, spiritual force ( Prov. 31:17–31 ). Anyone who reads Proverbs 31 and reduces it to a message of subservient homemaking misses its whole meaning. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Women in the New Testament Complementarians often cite Paul's words in Ephesians 5:21–33 to support the idea of female submission to male authority. If readers focus only on verse 22 ("Wives, submit yourselves to your own husbands as you do to the Lord"), they might assume a universal command. Yet examining the grammar and the first-century cultural and household context clarifies that Paul was addressing specific situations in the early church, not prescribing an eternal rule for all women. Paul declares, "This is a profound mystery—but I am talking about Christ and the church. However, each one of you also must love his wife as he loves himself, and the wife must respect her husband" ( Eph. 5:32–33 ). Submission, then, is not domination—it is a sacred, reciprocal covenant of love and respect, mirroring the dynamic of Christ and the church. Moreover, the writer warns against reading this passage as a mandate to subjugate women; it serves instead as an analogy for the eternal relations of origin within the Trinity between God the Father and Jesus ( see " Trinity: Jewish & Gentile Views "). In God's eyes, members of Christ's church are first-class citizens of his kingdom. Likewise, a husband should regard his wife as a first-class partner in the household, not an indentured servant. Just as Jesus cherishes the church as his inheritance and gave his life to redeem her, God calls men to be selfless, loving, and sacrificial toward the women they marry. This passage sets the stage for interpreting Scripture through a profound mutualist lens—far richer than complementarians often acknowledge—and one attuned to the practical realities of the local church in Paul's time. He also writes: For God is not a God of disorder but of peace—as in all the congregations of the Lord's people. Women should remain silent in the churches. They are not allowed to speak, but must be in submission, as the law says. If they want to inquire about something, they should ask their own husbands at home; for it is disgraceful for a woman to speak in the church. Or did the word of God originate with you? Or are you the only people it has reached? ( 1 Cor. 14:33–36 ). However, Paul was also friends with the woman Priscilla, who certainly did not remain silent in the churches. She was the wife of Aquila and fled Rome when the Roman emperor Claudius (10 BC–AD 54) banished the Jews from the city ( Acts 18:2 ). Priscilla was a teacher—a teacher of men, no less. Luke testifies, "[Apollos] began to speak boldly in the synagogue. When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they invited him to their home and explained to him the way of God more adequately" ( Acts 18:26 ). The Greek verb proslambanō ( G4355 ), correctly rendered in the New International Version as "invited to their home," shows that Priscilla and Aquila led a house church of their own. At first glance, this seems to contradict Paul's instruction to Timothy: "I do not permit a woman to teach or to assume authority over a man; she must be quiet" ( 1 Tim. 2:12 ). The reconciliation lies in context: Paul addressed a local issue with specific women, while Priscilla, a Jewish woman versed in the Law of Moses, was a praiseworthy "Proverbs 31 woman." In contrast, the women of Corinth were recent Gentile converts, still emerging from pagan cults such as those dedicated to Artemis or Aphrodite. The first-century church included many women in leadership. Yet let us be clear: the earliest decades of Christianity knew no formal ordination. The Greek verb diatassō ( G1299 ), meaning "to thoroughly command" and sometimes translated as "to ordain," does not describe the ordination of people in Scripture; it primarily refers to God the Father and Jesus (e.g., Matt. 11:1 , 1 Cor. 9:14 ). When Paul warned Timothy, "Do not be hasty in the laying on of hands, and do not share in the sins of others" ( 1 Tim. 5:22 ), he referred to a commissioning rite for appointing leaders (dating to AD 64 when Paul wrote to Timothy), not ordination as understood today. Local churches selected elders from within, who held responsibility rather than office. Thus, women were not "ordained" in the early church—but neither were men. In addition to elders, there were deacons. Paul greets a female deacon, Phoebe of Cenchreae, in his letter to the Romans, calling her a diakonos ( G1249 , "servant") for her ministry in the local church ( Rom. 16:1 ). The early church later appointed women to the diaconate once they reached sixty (cf. Acts 6:1–6 ; 1 Tim. 3:11 , 5:9 ), with Canon 15 of the Council of Chalcedon in 451 lowering the minimum age to forty. Other notable women leaders include Chloe of Corinth ( 1 Cor. 1:11 ), Lydia of Thyatira ( Acts 16:11 , 14 , 40 ), Nympha of Laodicea ( Col. 4:15 ), and Euodia and Syntyche of Philippi ( Phil. 4:2 ), who led house churches and exercised significant influence. Several women actively supported Jesus, providing the funds that sustained his ministry ( Luke 8:1–3 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion In the Garden of Eden, men and women stood as equals, both created in God's image. The gender roles that complementarians identify in Scripture were not part of God's original design but came as a result of the fall. While the Bible certainly describes differences between men and women, a strictly literal reading that treats every passage as a timeless command misses the larger story. Paul wrote, "There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus" ( Gal. 3:28 ). Early Christians used this verse in baptism to affirm that God values people not by gender, race, or status, but by their faith in Christ ( see " Equal Opportunity in Galatia "). Jesus' resurrection is the central truth that sets Christianity apart from all other world religions. The first witness was Mary Magdalene ( John 20:11–19 ), honored by the early church as the "apostle to the apostles." Paul likewise named Andronicus and Junia as "outstanding among the apostles" ( Rom. 16:7 ). Early Christian writers consistently recognized Junia as a woman, confirming that women served as trusted witnesses and messengers of the gospel from the very beginning. Many complementarians today say Junia was respected only by the apostles, but not as an apostle herself. But church history shows otherwise. Writers from the early and medieval church clearly recognized Junia as a woman and honored her as an apostle. Some modern translations, such as The Living Bible, render the name as Junias , a masculine form, reflecting discomfort with the theological implications of a female apostle. Yet even John Chrysostom (AD 347–407)—a native Greek speaker and archbishop who lived when Greek was still the language of Scripture and theology—recognized Junia as a woman, writing, "Indeed, how great was the wisdom of this woman that she was thought worthy of being called an apostle!" ( On Paul's Epistle to the Romans , Homily 31 ). His testimony carries special weight: if a Greek-speaking father of the church regarded the name as feminine, there is no linguistic basis for claiming otherwise. These examples reveal the lengths some have gone to preserve a complementarian agenda. Today, the church must honor women as full participants in ministry, just as the apostles themselves affirmed. Ben White ​ Prayer Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of heaven and earth. You created us male and female in your image. Help us to honor one another with humility and love, listening with care and serving with grace, so our lives reflect your goodness. Through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen . ​ Bibliography Bauckham, Richard. Gospel Women: Studies of the Named Women in the Gospels . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002. Belleville, Linda L., Craig L. Blomberg, Craig S. Keener, and Thomas R. Schreiner. Two Views on Women in Ministry . Counterpoints. Edited by James R. Beck and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005. Bellinger, W. H., Jr., and Todd D. Still, eds. NRSV Baylor Annotated Study Bible . Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House, 2019. Brown, Eric. "Plato's Ethics and Politics in The Republic ." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . September 12, 2017. link . Chrysostom, John. " The Homilies on the Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle to the Romans. " Translated by J. B. Morris and W. H. Simcox. In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , vol. 11 . Edited by Philip Schaff. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1889. Cohick, Lynn H. Women in the World of the Earliest Christians: Illuminating Ancient Ways of Life . Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009. Cohick, Lynn H., and Amy Brown Hughes. Christian Women in the Patristic World: Their Influence, Authority, and Legacy in the Second Through Fifth Centuries . Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017. Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Fee, Gordon D., and Douglas Stuart. How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth . 4th ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014 Green Miller, Rachel. Beyond Authority and Submission: Women and Men in Marriage, Church, and Society . Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2019. Holmes, Michael W., ed. and trans. The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations . 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007 Hylen, Susan E. Finding Phoebe: What New Testament Women Were Really Like . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2023. Jeffries, Bridget Jack. "John Chrysostom on the Apostle Junia." Weighted Glory (blog). January 1, 2019. [ link ] . Keener, Craig S. Paul, Women, and Wives: Marriage and Women's Ministry in the Letters of Paul . Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1992. Lee-Barnewall, Michelle. Neither Complementarian nor Egalitarian: A Kingdom Corrective to the Evangelical Gender Debate . Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016. Lin, Yii-Jan. "Junia: An Apostle Before Paul." Journal of Biblical Literature 139, no. 1 (2020): 191–209. [ link ] . Marshall, I. Howard, Stephen Travis, and Ian Paul. Exploring the New Testament: A Guide to the Letters and Revelation . 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2016. McKinley, John. "The Need for a Third Way Between Egalitarianism and Complementarianism." Fathom . January 27, 2022. [ link ]. McKnight, Scot. Junia Is Not Alone . Englewood, CO: Patheos, 2011. ​ Mowczko, Marg. "A Suitable Helper (in Hebrew)." Marg Mowczko (blog). March 8, 2010. [ link ]. ⸻. "Was Junia Well Known 'to' the Apostles?" November 29, 2019. [ link ]. ​ Percival, Henry R., trans. "The Fourth Ecumenical Council: The Council of Chalcedon." In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , series 2, vol. 14. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1899. ​ Plato. Republic . Translated by Benjamin Jowett. Internet Classics Archive. 1994–2009. [ link ] . Romig, Jonathan. "Complementarianism—1 Timothy 2:8–3:7." Sermon, Cornerstone Congregational Church, April 24, 2022. [ link ] . Sanders, E. P.  Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion.  Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977. Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins . New York: Crossroad, 1983. Sprinkle, Preston. From Genesis to Junia: An Honest Search for What the Bible Really Says About Women in Leadership . Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 2026. Wallace, Daniel B., and Michael H. Burer. "Was Junia Really an Apostle? A Reexamination of Rom. 16.7." New Testament Studies 47, no. 1 (2001): 76–91. [ link ] . Westfall, Cynthia Long. Paul and Gender: Reclaiming the Apostle's Vision for Men and Women in Christ . Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016. Witherington, Ben, III. Women and the Genesis of Christianity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ⸻. Women in the Earliest Churches.  Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 59. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ​ Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019. Wright, N. T. "Women's Service in the Church: The Biblical Basis." Paper presented at the International Symposium on Men, Women, and the Church , St. John's College, Durham, UK, September 4, 2004. CBE International. [ link ] .

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Content warning : Make no mistake: there is only one Lord and Savior, only one name under heaven that can save us—Jesus the Messiah, the blessed and only Sovereign, the King of kings and Lord of lords ( Acts 4:12 ; 1 Tim. 6:15 ). The word "Christ" ( Christos , G5547 ) means "anointed King and Priest," reminding us that all Christians are royal citizens of God's kingdom ( 1 Pet. 2:9 ). Unlike the shifting powers of modern politics, where leaders rise and fall and ideas change with time, the reign of Christ stands firm forever. His rule never fades and rests on perfect justice and righteousness. Earthly governments may divide people by party or belief, but God's kingdom brings together believers from every tribe, language, and nation under one genuine authority (cf. Matt 28:18 ). Our hope and salvation do not come from human systems—they come only from the unchanging truth and power of Jesus Christ. Most people have never heard the word sacralism . Yet in today's culture wars—where politicized groups within Christianity clash with militant secularists—many know the idea as civil religion, nationalism, or fundamentalism. Sacralism is the merging of church and state, in which each is called upon to shape the other. In sacralism, the state takes on the role of religion, creating a civil faith. Neither Jesus nor the apostle Paul supported a union of church and state, and the New Testament contains no such idea. The problem of Christian sacralism began in the fourth century with the emperor Constantine (r. AD 306–337), more than three hundred years after the New Testament era. This "Constantinian shift" transformed Christianity from a grassroots network of self-governing churches into a centralized religious monarchy. It began with the Edict of Milan in AD 313, which legalized Christianity across the Roman Empire. Later, the emperor Theodosius I (r. AD 379–395) solidified this union by making Christianity the official state religion in AD 392, banning paganism and all other faiths. The Latin phrase Cuius regio, eius religio —"Whoever controls the region decides its religion"—perfectly captures the essence of sacralism. Paleo-Christian Press ​Definitions of Key Terms in Sacralism ​ Before continuing, we need to clarify a few key terms. There is nothing wrong with being a patriot , meaning "one who loves and supports their country." The word comes from the Greek adjective patrikos  ( G3967 ), which means "belonging to the fathers or ancestors." In other words, a patriot views their homeland as a "fatherland" ( patria , G3965 ). The term patrikos  appears only once in the New Testament, when Paul writes, "I advanced in Judaism beyond many among my people of the same age, for I was far more zealous for the traditions of my ancestors" ( Gal. 1:14 ). The word patria  appears three times in the New Testament, translated in the New International Version as "line," "peoples," or "family" ( Luke 2:4 ; Acts 3:25 ; Eph. 3:15 ). Patriotism , then, reflects healthy civic duty—an attitude that helps communities flourish. We practice it in everyday actions, such as supporting local businesses or attending community events. However, when this positive loyalty turns into hostility toward others or a desire to control resources and power, patriotism crosses the line into nationalism . A nationalist is someone who shows "loyalty and devotion to a nation, especially with a sense of national consciousness exalting one nation above all others and placing primary emphasis on promoting its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations or supranational groups." When a Christian nationalist fuses faith with nationalism, they create a corrupt worldview that is sacral —a syncretic mix of the sacred and the secular. Sacralism functions as a blended religion, much like voodoo or santería, with roots that distort both faith and morality, giving rise to what is often called "civil religion." A person devoted to this nationalistic civil religion is not a genuine follower of Christ but someone who misuses faith to serve personal or political goals. The authentic message of Jesus—grounded in truth, humility, and repentance—offends and exposes those who twist religion into a tool of power. Moreover, churches should not display national flags inside their buildings or on their grounds. Our allegiance belongs to God alone, and giving our devotion or loyalty to anything else becomes eidōlolatria  ( G1495 ), the Greek word for "idolatry" or "image worship." The apostle Paul asks, "What agreement is there between the temple of God and idols? For we are the temple of the living God" ( 2 Cor. 6:16 ). ​ Nad Hemnani No Country for Old Christians ​ In his letter to the Philippians, Paul reminds us, "But our citizenship is in heaven. And we eagerly await a Savior from there, the Lord Jesus Christ" ( Phil. 3:20 ). Likewise, the apostle Peter urges, "Dear friends, I urge you, as foreigners and exiles, to abstain from sinful desires, which wage war against your soul" ( 1 Pet. 2:11 ). Early Christians carried this understanding of being pilgrims in a temporary world for centuries. The Letter to Diognetus  (c. AD 200) captures this truth best, describing how believers live in the world yet do not belong to it: Christians are not distinguished from other people by the country, language, or customs they observe. They neither inhabit cities of their own, employ a peculiar form of speech, nor lead a life marked out by any singularity. The course of conduct they follow has not been devised by any speculation or deliberation of inquisitive men, nor do they, like some, proclaim themselves the advocates of any merely human doctrines. But, inhabiting Greek as well as barbarian cities, according to the lot each of them has determined, and following the customs of the natives in respect to clothing, food, and the rest of their ordinary conduct, they display to us their wonderful and confessedly paradoxical method of life. They dwell in their own countries but simply as sojourners. As citizens, they share in all things with others and yet endure all things as if foreigners. Every foreign land is to them as their native country, and every land of their birth as a land of strangers. They marry, as do all others; they beget children, but they do not destroy their fetuses [ see  " Pastoral Response: Abortion "]. They have a common table but not a common bed. They are in the flesh, but they do not live after the flesh. They pass their days on earth, but they are citizens of heaven. They obey the prescribed laws and, at the same time, surpass the laws in their lives. They love all men and are persecuted by all. They are unknown and condemned; they are put to death and restored to life ( Diognetus 5 ). ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Give to Caesar What Is Caesar's ​ Sacralists often rely on two main passages to defend their worldview, beginning with Jesus' powerful teaching that contrasts the authority of the Roman emperor (Latin: Caesar ) with the authority of God: "Tell us then, what is your opinion? Is it right to pay the imperial tax to Caesar or not?" But Jesus, knowing their evil intent, said, "You hypocrites, why are you trying to trap me? Show me the coin used for paying the tax." They brought him a denarius, and he asked them, "Whose image is this? And whose inscription?" "Caesar's," they replied. Then he said to them, "So give back to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's" ( Matt. 22:17–21 ). ​ Many Americans misread Jesus' teaching by interpreting it through the lens of the Establishment Clause—the opening of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." This approach commits a serious category error because the Bible and the Constitution come from entirely different historical and cultural contexts. Christians should never use modern political documents to interpret Scripture. Jesus was not teaching first-century Jews to separate religion from politics. In context, he answered the Pharisees with a libertarian attitude toward the Roman Empire, standing apart from the Zealots, such as Simon, who led violent uprisings against it. Both groups tried to trap Jesus into taking a side, which would have branded him either an enemy of Rome or a traitor to his own people. Instead, Jesus refused their political framing and redirected their focus to God's higher authority. The Pharisees and Zealots alike pursued worldly agendas but neglected the kingdom of heaven ( see " Kingdom of God & Heaven "). We must learn from their mistake and seek first the reign of God, not the kingdoms of this world. So, what does "give back to Caesar" really mean if it is not about separating church and state? When we set aside modern Western assumptions and approach the text through the lens of ancient Mediterranean theology, we see that Jesus was contrasting two images—the emperor's image on the coin and the image of God in humanity. With this understanding, Jesus' message becomes clear: paying taxes to Rome had no spiritual consequence for the Jews. The coin belonged to Caesar because it bore his image, so returning it to him was simply an act of fairness. The soul, however, bears the image of God, and it belongs to him alone. No ruler or government can claim ownership over what belongs to God. A familiar saying today—"You can take my body, but you will never have my soul"—captures Jesus' lesson far better than the modern idea of the Establishment Clause. The emperor could demand a coin, but that was all he could claim. God's rule and care extend over all humanity, and His blessings reach far beyond material wealth. Jesus taught that Caesar could have his money because God owns everything that truly matters. "Why would people gain the whole world but lose their lives?" ( Mark 8:36 ). The coin itself carried deep meaning. It was a graven image forbidden to Jews because its pagan symbols implied the emperor's divinity, violating the second commandment ( Exod. 20:4 ). The Greek word charagma ( G5480 ), meaning "imprint" or "graven image," appears in Acts 17:29 and again in Revelation to describe the mark of the beast ( Rev. 16:2 , 19:20 ). By using such coins, the Jewish leaders revealed their hypocrisy and idolatry—a nationalism that placed Caesar above God. Their betrayal reached its height when they told the Roman governor Pontius Pilate, "If you let this man go, you are no friend of Caesar. Anyone who claims to be a king opposes Caesar. . . . We have no king but Caesar" ( John 19:12 , 15 ). As Christians, we bear only God's image and confess no king but Jesus, who teaches us: Greater love has no one than this: to lay down one's life for one's friends. You are my friends if you do what I command. I no longer call you servants, because a servant does not know his master's business. Instead, I have called you friends, for everything that I learned from my Father I have made known to you ( John 15:13–15 ). ​ Courtesy of Broettcher+Trinklein TV Conclusion ​ Sacralists often twist Paul's words about how Christians should relate to government. We should apply the Bible to life today, but we must first understand its original setting. When Paul wrote to believers in Rome—the center of the empire—he spoke to people who had no power to choose their leaders. A few, like Paul himself ( Acts 22:25–27 ), were Roman citizens, but most Christians were not. We must remember that Paul wrote to subjects under imperial rule, not to citizens of a democratic nation, when we read this passage: ​ Let everyone be subject to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God. Consequently, whoever rebels against the authority is rebelling against what God has instituted, and those who do so will bring judgment on themselves. For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong. Do you want to be free from fear of the one in authority? Then do what is right and you will be commended. For the one in authority is God's servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for rulers do not bear the sword for no reason. They are God's servants, agents of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer. Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also as a matter of conscience. This is also why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God's servants, who give their full time to governing. Give to everyone what you owe them: If you owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor ( Rom. 13:1–7 ). ​ Paul's instructions align with Jesus' command to "give back to Caesar" and with the covenant God made with all nations through Noah (cf. Gen. 9:4–6 ; see " Doctrine & Praxis ," p. 8). Respecting the government means honoring its authority without giving it our full allegiance. Accusers charged Paul with "defying Caesar's decrees, saying that there is another king, one called Jesus" ( Acts 17:7 ). When the Sanhedrin put Peter and John on trial, they said, "Which is right in God's eyes: to listen to you, or to him? You be the judges! As for us, we cannot help speaking about what we have seen and heard" ( Acts 4:19–20 ). The apostles obeyed God over human rulers, proving that civil disobedience is right when governments silence the church. In contrast, the Christian bishops of the fourth century—exhausted after nearly three hundred years of Roman persecution under emperors Nero (r. AD 54–68), Domitian (r. AD 81–96), and Diocletian (r. AD 284–305)—welcomed Constantine's reforms with enthusiasm. To their credit, they developed the "two swords" political philosophy, which kept the church distinct from the empire, unlike the old pagan system in which the Senate deified its Caesars. Yet this period also gave rise to a sacralist worldview that encouraged Christians to serve in the military ( see " Peacemakers & Just War "), eventually leading to the Crusades (1095–1291), during which Christians even fought one another. ​ As Christians, we know that God "makes nations great, and destroys them; he enlarges nations, and disperses them" ( Job 12:23 ). The prophet Amos also records God asking, "Did I not bring Israel up from Egypt, the Philistines from Caphtor and the Arameans from Kir?" ( Amos 9:7 ). In other words, God set the boundaries of every nation, not just Israel ( Deut. 32:8 ). We have no right to fight over who is greater or more powerful. One day, every person from every nation will bow before God and "acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father" ( Phil. 2:10–11 ). When God creates the new earth, all nations will disappear as the old world passes away ( Rev. 21:1 ). Finally, this advice from Paul, consistent with his message in Romans 13, teaches us the proper way to view government: ​ I urge, then, first of all, that petitions, prayers, intercession and thanksgiving be made for all people—for kings and all those in authority, that we may live peaceful and quiet lives in all godliness and holiness ( 1 Tim. 2:1–2 ). ​ Let us "Make the Commission Great Again" by obeying Jesus' command: "Therefore, go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" ( Matt. 28:19 ; see " Cost of Christian Discipleship "). ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of heaven and earth. You alone are faithful and sovereign over every earthly power. Gather the peoples under your truth, pour out your Spirit, and lead us to live as citizens of your eternal kingdom. Through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen . Bibliography ​ Archer, Brad. "A Biblical View of Patriotism." Unlocking the Bible (blog). June 30, 2016. [ link ] . Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. Benestad, J. Brian, Robert Benne, Bruce L. Fields, Thomas W. Heilke, and James K. A. Smith. Five Views on the Church and Politics . Counterpoints. Edited by Amy E. Black and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2015. ​ Breshears, Jefrey D. Introduction to Bibliology: What Every Christian Should Know About the Origins, Composition, Inspiration, Interpretation, Canonicity, and Transmission of the Bible . Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2017. ​​Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Grant, Robert M. The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary , vol. 2. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ Kidd, Thomas S. "Christian Nationalism vs. Christian Patriotism." The Gospel Coalition. December 18, 2020. [ link ] . Kretzmann, Oswin Garnet. A Theological Inquiry into the Doctrine of the Sacrament of Baptism and Rebaptism in the Methodist Church of Southern Africa . PhD diss., University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2018. ​ Leonard, Angel. Enlightenment East and West . Albany: SUNY Press, 1994. ​ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. ​ McCoy, Daniel. "Is Christian Nationalism Faithfulness? 4 Lessons from the Constantine Years." Renew. [ link ] . Rad, Gerhard von. Holy War in Ancient Israel . Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2000. Roberts, Alexander, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, eds. "The Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus." In Ante-Nicene Fathers , vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1885. ​ Verduin, Leonard. The Anatomy of a Hybrid: A Study in Church-State Relationships . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976. ⸻. The Reformers and Their Stepchildren . The Dissent and Nonconformity Series, no. 14. Paris, AR: Baptist Standard Bearer, 2001. Wright, N. T. How God Became King: The Forgotten Story of the Gospels . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016.

First Century Christian Faith equips today's disciples through paleo-orthodoxy and the historical-grammatical method of Bible reading. Go to "Terms." TERMS OF USE Overview These Terms of Use govern access to and use of this website, www.firstcenturycf.org , operated by Paleo-Christian Press. By accessing, browsing, or using this website, you affirm that you have read, understood, and agreed to these Terms of Use. If you disagree, you must discontinue using this website. Purpose & Nature We operate this website exclusively for educational and informational purposes. The website presents historical, theological, and religious material intended for general informational use. We do not provide legal, academic, or pastoral advice, and no content creates an advisory or fiduciary relationship. Eligibility & Acceptable Use You may use the website only for lawful purposes and in a manner consistent with these Terms of Use. You agree not to use the website in any way that violates applicable laws, infringes the rights of others, disrupts website functionality, attempts unauthorized access, or misuses content or systems. We reserve the right to restrict, suspend, or terminate access when we determine that a user has violated these Terms of Use or misused the website. Intellectual Property & Use of Content We own or license all website content, including text, graphics, logos, design elements, and original materials, unless expressly stated otherwise. United States and international intellectual property laws protect this content. We grant users a limited, non-exclusive, non-transferable license to access and use website content solely for personal, non-commercial, educational purposes. You may not reproduce, distribute, modify, publish, transmit, or exploit this website's content without prior written authorization, except as permitted by law. User Communications & Submissions If you submit inquiries, messages, or other communications through the website, you represent that you have the legal right to submit such material and that it does not violate the rights of others. By submitting communications, you grant us a limited, non-exclusive, royalty-free license to use, retain, and reproduce such material solely for responding to inquiries, administering the website, or fulfilling educational and operational functions. We assume no obligation to publish or retain submitted materials. Educational Disclaimer We provide all website content solely for informational and educational purposes. We make no representations regarding the accuracy, completeness, or reliability of any content. Users assume full responsibility for interpreting and applying the information presented. Third-party Content & External Links The website may include links to third-party websites or embedded content operated by external parties. We provide such links solely for reference or convenience. We do not control, endorse, or assume responsibility for third-party content, services, or practices. Website Availability & Modifications We do not guarantee continuous, uninterrupted, or error-free access to the website. We may modify, suspend, or discontinue any aspect of the website at any time without notice. Disclaimer of Warranties We provide the website and its content on an "as is" and "as available" basis. To the fullest extent permitted by law, we disclaim all warranties, express or implied, including warranties of accuracy, merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, and non-infringement. Limitation of Liability To the fullest extent permitted by law, Paleo-Christian Press shall not be liable for any direct, indirect, incidental, consequential, or special damages arising out of or related to access to or use of the website or reliance on its content. Indemnification You agree to indemnify and hold harmless Paleo-Christian Press from claims, liabilities, damages, losses, or expenses arising from your violation of these Terms of Use or unlawful use of the website. Governing Law We govern these Terms of Use by the laws of the United States without regard to conflict-of-law principles. Severability If a court finds any provision of these Terms of Use unenforceable, the remaining provisions shall remain in full force and effect. Changes to the Terms of Use We reserve the right to revise these Terms of Use at any time. We post updated versions on this page and make them effective immediately upon publication. Continued use of the website constitutes acceptance of the revised Terms of Use. Contact Information Direct website use questions to contact@firstcenturycf.org .

First Century Christian Faith equips today's disciples through paleo-orthodoxy and the historical-grammatical method of Bible reading. Go to "home." PALEO-ORTHODOXY FOR TODAY'S DISCIPLES BLOG 1 / 21 Angels & Demons: A Biblical Survey Angels and demons are not symbols or metaphors in Scripture but real spiritual beings who operate within God's created order. From Genesis to Revelation, the Bible presents angels as obedient servants who carry out God's will and demons as hostile powers that oppose it. This study traces their activity across the biblical canon, showing how all spiritual beings remain under God's authority and how Christ's victory defines their limits. Five Leadership Styles in Christian Perspective Christian leadership begins with Scripture and the example of Jesus. Modern leadership styles gain new meaning when shaped by truth, humility, and Christlike character. Shepherding, servanthood, instruction, spiritual transformation, and visionary purpose guide believers to lead with integrity, wisdom, and hope rooted in the power of the risen Christ. Five Rights Leaders Have to Surrender Authentic Christian leadership is not about power or entitlement—it is about surrender. This article explores five rights every leader must willingly lay down: the right to control the narrative, to be understood, to defend oneself, to escape responsibility, and to "just do you." Through Scripture and real-world wisdom, it shows how Christ-like leadership embraces humility, sacrifice, and influence shaped by service rather than status. Christ's Triumph in Spiritual Warfare Spiritual warfare is real, and we live it every day. The powers of darkness clash against God's authority, and we must act. We do not fight with swords and shields. Instead, we use truth, prayer, righteousness, and a renewed mind. Christ has already won the decisive victory through his cross and resurrection. As believers, we enter that triumph by standing firm in faith and proclaiming his kingdom in a broken world. 1 2 Articles New Testament Biographies Jesus of Nazareth Jesus of Nazareth walked the roads of Galilee and Judea, teaching about God's kingdom and calling people to repent and believe. He healed the sick, cast out demons, and showed what life under God's reign looks like. He faced opposition, died on a cross under Pontius Pilate, and rose on the third day—victory over sin and death. Through him, we enter new life and join God's kingdom mission. Andrew of Bethsaida Andrew of Bethsaida answered Jesus's call first, then brought his brother, Simon, to follow. He worked as a fisherman at the Sea of Galilee, followed John the Baptist, and introduced others to the Messiah. Though scripture records only a few moments, Andrew's quiet faith impacted key scenes—from the feeding of the five thousand to the arrival of Greek seekers. His legacy shows that simple acts can draw people to Christ. James Alphaeus James, son of Alphaeus, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus, remains one of the more enigmatic figures in the Gospel lists. The New Testament mentions him only by name and his father's name, giving us few personal details. Traditions link him to James the Less and even to James, the brother of Jesus, but scholars debate these connections. His life invites us to follow Jesus faithfully—even when our story stays hidden chiefly behind history's curtain. James of Jerusalem James the Just, the brother of Jesus, led the Jerusalem church after Peter left the city. He guided believers through major decisions, including the Council of Jerusalem, which determined how Gentile converts could be received into the faith. He wrote a letter of wisdom, taught practical theology, and stood as a bridge between Jewish tradition and the new Christian movement. His leadership helped shape the earliest church's mission and unity. 1 2 3 4 5 Doctrine & Ministry Baptism: Immersed in Christ In baptism, we dive into the living water of Christ's victory. When Jesus stepped into the Jordan River, he began his ministry, embraced our flesh, and obeyed the Father with firm resolve. Paul says baptism unites us with Christ in his death and resurrection. We leave our past behind and rise into new life through the Holy Spirit. Baptism is not just a ritual—it is the moment our faith takes hold and we begin to live as children of the risen Lord. Communion: Partaking in Christ We gather for communion to remember what Jesus has done and live in his new life. We take the bread and the cup, reflecting on his body given and his blood shed—and we commit to follow him with full hearts. This meal unites us as one body in Christ, breaking barriers and bringing hope. As we share these elements, we proclaim his death until he comes again, and we step into the promise of his resurrection and presence. God's Will & Our Free Choices The article explains how God's will works together with human freedom, not against it. It argues that God invites us into cooperation, not passive submission, drawing from early church tradition and modern thought. God knows all possibilities and still invites genuine choice. When we live in his will, we walk with him in daily obedience, love, and service—not as puppets, but as partners in his plan. Law, Grace & New Wine Jesus did not come to abolish the Law of Moses but to fulfil it and pour new wine into new wineskins. The old covenant served Israel well, yet the gospel brings something deeper—grace and transformation through Christ. When Christians claim grace alone, they must not disregard the Law's role in shaping faithful living. In Christ we uphold God's commandments while relying on his mercy—not legalism, but life-in-abundance in his kingdom. 1 2 3 4 5 Exegesis & Discipleship A Saga of Seven Churches The number seven in the Bible often means completeness and perfection. When Jesus wrote letters to the seven churches in Asia Minor (Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea), he spoke not just to those cities but to the whole church across time. Each letter offers a greeting, correction, and hope. They teach all believers how to stay faithful, live wisely, and trust God amid challenge and change. Blue: God's Favorite Color In Scripture and Jewish tradition, blue shows God's presence, holiness, and eternal nature. The Israelites wove blue threads into their garments to remind themselves of God's law. The prophet saw God's throne made of blue lapis lazuli. Blue appears in temple curtains and priestly garments to mark the sacred. Christians now use blue to represent heaven's glory and faith. The sky invites us to look upward to the eternal God. Calendar of the Church The liturgical calendar helps us remember the life and ministry of Jesus and live it out in our everyday lives! It guides us through seasons such as Advent, Lent, Pascha, Pentecost, and ordinary time, drawing on the Jewish tradition of sacred assemblies. By observing these rhythms, we pattern worship, teaching, and life around Christ's coming, death, resurrection, and the ongoing work of the Spirit. Christology: Titles of Jesus Christology studies who Jesus is as the Messiah. Both "Christ" (Greek) and "Messiah" (Hebrew) mean "anointed one." The New Testament assigns many titles to Jesus to show his roles and identity. Some treat him only as a great teacher, but the historic church affirms that he is truly God and truly human. He did not say "I am God" in our modern way, but he declared "I am" in a way first-century Jews understood as divine. 1 2 3 4 5 Theology & Biblical Studies Attachment Styles in Christian Context We explore how attachment styles—our pattern of connecting with others—relate to faith. Early relationships shape how we trust, love, and feel a sense of belonging. In Christ, believers find a secure base: a steady God who accepts and supports us. Our insecure styles (anxious, avoidant, or fearful) reflect brokenness, but the gospel brings healing. In the Christian community, we learn to trust, connect, and live in love. Auschwitz & Biblical Studies The article looks at Auschwitz and its aftermath to show how Christian theology, biblical studies, and Jewish–Christian relations have changed since World War II. It traces how antisemitism in Western Christianity helped pave the way for Nazi genocide, and how the Holocaust forced theologians to rethink the "Jewishness of Jesus" and the New Testament's Jewish context. It argues that remembering Auschwitz invites the church into repentance, learning, and deeper reconciliation. Axial Age & Christianity The Axial Age lasted roughly from 500 to 300 BC and saw the emergence of major religious and philosophical traditions in Israel, Greece, India, and China. Karl Jaspers called this era a turning point in human self-understanding. The article explains how the Hebrew prophets, Greek philosophers, and Buddhist teachers helped pave the way for the gospel. It shows how Christian thinkers use this framework to see Jesus as the divine Logos who fulfills the Axial Age shift. Biblical vs. Systematic Theology Biblical theology focuses on what the biblical authors meant in their own historical, cultural, and literary settings. Systematic theology, in contrast, gathers Scripture into unified doctrines, showing what the whole Bible teaches about God, creation, Christ, salvation, the church, and the future. When these two methods work together, they help believers understand and apply God's Word faithfully today. 1 2 3 4 5

First Century Christian Faith equips today's disciples through paleo-orthodoxy and the historical-grammatical method of Bible reading. Go to "leaders." Ministry Leaders Theological Content Lead James Collazo, M.T.S. James is a retired United States Army veteran with 20 years of leadership experience at operational and tactical levels. He served in Kosovo (2001–2002), Iraq (2008–2009), and South Korea (2013–2014). In 2014, Indianhead —the official magazine of the 2nd Infantry Division—featured his work as a sexual harassment/assault victim advocate. In 2016, The Southwesterner , the student magazine of Southwestern College (Kansas), profiled him as an alumnus. A devoted Christian for more than two decades, James received believer's baptism by a Protestant chaplain in North Macedonia, near the region where the apostle Paul once taught. He was originally baptized as an infant at St. Peter Cathedral, headquarters of the Diocese of Erie, Pennsylvania. He earned a Bachelor of Arts in Religion from American Military University in 2013 and a Master of Theological Studies from Southwestern College in 2015. James has more than a decade of experience teaching Bible studies and faith formation in military chapels, college ministries, and churches. A paleo-orthodox Wesleyan/Pentecostal theologian, James focuses on early church history, Wesleyan theology, and the historical-grammatical method of biblical interpretation. He also has experience as a professional growth counselor. He published his first book, First-Century Faith: Reviving Christian Origins in Belief and Practice (Seattle: Kindle Direct, 2025), a conversational guide to rediscovering the roots of Christian belief and discipleship. Since 2017, he has written articles under the banner of First Century Christian Faith . He is a member of the Wesleyan Theological Society, the Society of Evangelical Arminians, and the Society for Post-Supersessionist Theology. Pastoral Content Writer Nichole Schreiber, M.Th. Nichole leads Erie First Assembly of God in Erie, Pennsylvania. She brings a deep passion for the local church, unity in the body of Christ, and teaching Scripture in ways that lead to real-life application. She loves helping people take their next step in committed discipleship toward following Jesus. Nichole grew up attending Sunday worship at Erie First Assembly of God and studied English education at Missouri State University. During college, she joined Chi Alpha Campus Ministries and met her husband, Joel, a student at Central Bible College. Together, they served for more than a decade ministering to college students as Chi Alpha missionaries in Northwestern Pennsylvania. During that time, Nichole earned ministry credentials through Global University and later became an ordained minister with the Assemblies of God. In October 2016, Nichole returned to Erie First Assembly as Executive Pastor. Just weeks into the role, the senior pastor unexpectedly stepped down. Nichole stepped into interim leadership and guided the church through the transition. In February 2017, the congregation affirmed her as Lead Pastor, making her the first woman to serve in that role at Erie First Assembly of God. She completed her Master of Theology at the University of Valley Forge and currently serves as the Core Ministries Specialist for the Network of Women Ministers of the Assemblies of God. She also co-authored three devotional books: Get Your Hopes Up (Seattle: Kindle Direct, 2018), Hope Changes Everything: 21 Day Devotional (Seattle: Kindle Direct, 2019), and Love Build Send (Seattle: Kindle Direct, 2021). Through her writing and leadership, Nichole equips believers to grow in faith, live with hope, and embrace their mission in the world. Pastoral Consultant Aaron LaBarge, M.Th. Aaron's journey into ministry began early, even though he grew up in a broken home with little Christian influence. At age 12, he accepted Christ after an invitation from a neighbor and attended a local Vacation Bible School. His faith deepened, and he sensed God calling him into ministry. By his senior year of high school, he realized he was not ready to pastor, so he joined the United States Army as a chaplain assistant and learned from the many pastors he served alongside. While stationed in Texas, Aaron led the Awana program at his local church. Through that experience, he discovered his passion for equipping families to grow in the Word together. In 2015, the Army honorably discharged him after he received a diagnosis of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome, a connective tissue disorder. Though this diagnosis changed his path, it strengthened his resolve to pursue God's call. Aaron and his wife felt God saying, "Go and do as I have called you," so they searched for a church to serve. That search led them to Columbia Baptist Church in Kentucky. Aaron began as the Children's Pastor and later became the Family Pastor. He focused on building a Christ-centered, family-driven ministry. During this time, he also earned a Bachelor of Science in Interdisciplinary Studies with minors in Business and Christian Counseling from Liberty University and a Master of Theology from Campbellsville University. Aaron wrote Chapter 8, "Don't Worry, I Saw This on MacGyver: Engaging Kids with Object Lessons and Props," in Irresistible: How to Engage Kids and Point Them to Jesus (Four Rivers Media, 2018), and Chapter 14, "Put a Little Seasoning on It: You Are Stronger When You Learn from Those Who Came before You," in Stronger: Increase Your Personal Depth and Wisdom (Four Rivers Media, 2019).