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Introduction We must cling to age-old truths in a rapidly secularizing world fractured by identity politics. The Benedict Option (Sentinel, 2017) by the Eastern Orthodox journalist Rod Dreher (b. 1967) suggests a strategy of withdrawal and renewal inspired by Benedictine monasticism—a refuge amidst chaos. He based his book concept on this quote by the Roman Catholic philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre (b. 1929): "If the tradition of the virtues was able to survive the horrors of the last dark ages, we are not entirely without hope . . . We are waiting not for a Godot but for another—doubtless very different—St. Benedict." But how does this Benedictine approach harmonize with the Evangelical focus on individual conversion and the Wesleyan pursuit of holiness and societal change? And how does it mesh with the distributist ideal of economic fairness, promoting small, enduring communities? This epilogue regards a future where these viewpoints intersect, forging a comprehensive and optimistic way forward. Exploring this convergence means examining how different yet complementary perspectives can effectively address current challenges. The Benedictine emphasis on intentional community and spiritual depth resonates with the Evangelical zeal for personal growth. Moreover, the Wesleyan commitment to social justice and holiness can enrich the distributist focus on fair, localized economies. By integrating these elements, we can formulate a comprehensive and unified response to the complexities of modern life. Adopting this multifaceted approach facilitates the establishment of spiritually vibrant, economically just, and socially transformative communities, paving the way for a future that honors age-old wisdom and contemporary needs. Wesley's Vision: Personal & Social Holiness The Wesleyan tradition highlights the importance of personal and social holiness, resulting from the eighteenth-century revival movements. John Wesley (1703–1791) famously stated, "There is no holiness but social holiness." While the idea of secluding oneself from society, as suggested in The Benedict Option , may appear contradictory to the mission of societal transformation, we would do better to see it as a method of reforming the world from within—a deliberate step back to fortify our impact. According to this perspective, Wesleyan believers are not interested in forming self-contained virtuous communities. Their goal is also to foster spiritual and social revival that spreads the love of Christ outward. Just as Wesley preached in open fields, bringing the gospel to areas of need, modern Evangelicals can also adopt the Benedict Option to prepare themselves for service. Communities centered on spiritual practices and purposeful living are platforms for nurturing individuals to become messengers of grace and truth. The emphasis on holiness is not about seclusion but about bringing about change—within individuals and society. Wesleyan theology challenges us to consider: How can our communities shine as examples of love, justice, and truth in a world searching for hope? Confronting injustice and advocating for the innocent is essential. Despite the challenging nature of politics, we Christians have achieved significant success in the public arena. There is a noticeable change happening regarding crucial topics such as homosexuality and abortion, indicating a shift in societal perspectives and legal structures. These triumphs are not merely minor adjustments but essential landmarks in the more significant battle for justice and ethical principles. By actively participating in public discourse, our dedication to these issues can facilitate additional advancements and motivate others to support the creation of a society that respects the worth and dignity of all individuals. Distributism: An Economy of Solidarity Distributism , championed by the Roman Catholic thinkers G. K. Chesterton (1874–1936) and Hilaire Belloc (1870–1953), critiques unchecked capitalism and oppressive socialism. It envisions an economy where the government evenly distributes property, small businesses and local economies thrive, and corporations prioritize human dignity over profit. How does this economic vision intersect with the Benedict Option? For more information about distributism, see our article, " Biblical Case for Distributism ." The Benedictine emphasis on community and simplicity aligns closely with distributist ideals. Rather than endorsing large, anonymous markets overseen by remote authorities, distributism promotes local economies that enable individuals to thrive in their professions and connections. From a distributist perspective, the Benedict Option is not solely a retreat for spiritual purposes but also a transformation in economic practices. Communities embracing the Benedict Option could nurture local economies that eschew the materialism prevalent in contemporary society, opting instead to promote a culture of responsibility and well-being. Evangelicals view the economic standpoint as a matter of justice. Wesley demonstrated profound empathy for the less fortunate, emphasizing the importance of uniting faith and actions. A Christian distributist community aims to revive spirituality and promote economic fairness by establishing structures that prioritize reevaluating labor and protecting the marginalized. In the United States, the American Solidarity Party advocates the distributist position, named after the Solidarity (Polish: Solidarność ) trade union that contributed to the downfall of communism in Poland. A New Approach to the Benedict Option The Benedict Option, inspired by Wesleyan Evangelical zeal and distributist economic ideals, offers a way that steers clear of isolation and defeat. It urges Christians to form deliberate communities with spiritual vibrance and social justice. These communities act as sanctuaries for renewal and revitalization, where the world's fractures can begin to heal. Although this vision requires effort and entails sacrifices, devotion, and complete adherence to the teachings of Jesus, it also promises the opportunity for deep joy. These communities strive to seamlessly blend faith and work, worship and equity, and—most of all—prayer and advocacy. Within these societies, the church can once again emphasize its prophetic role. Just like in Wesley's time, it has the potential to illuminate a world in dire need of it—not by retreating, but by standing resolute, led by timeless wisdom, and empowered by the Holy Spirit. Let this proposal serve as an invitation to reevaluate the Benedict Option from the perspectives of Wesleyan and distributist principles—an invitation to endure the challenges ahead and flourish as a community defined by hope, honesty, and fairness. Conclusion Initially perceived as a retreat from the secular world, we can reimagine the Benedict Option as a holistic framework that integrates spiritual richness with proactive engagement in shaping societal transformation. Combining the Benedictine emphasis on intentional community, the Wesleyan dedication to individual and communal holiness, and the distributist principle of equitable economies, a more nuanced and pragmatic strategy unfolds. This strategy addresses individual and communal spiritual needs and economic and social justice issues, providing a dynamic and comprehensive response to contemporary challenges. Sean H. T. Domencic, at the Tradistae blog, says, "An intentional community is integralism on a small scale. It is not a retreat from political engagement, but a springboard for holy men and women as they work together in building a better world." The fusion of these perspectives offers a compelling model for modern Christian life that embraces the richness of ancient traditions while innovatively addressing the complexities of today's world. It invites believers to build communities that are not only sanctuaries of renewal but also active agents of change, reflecting a commitment to faith and action. As we navigate the fractures and uncertainties of our time, this integrated vision encourages us to cultivate environments where Christian faith, justice, and economic fairness intersect, fostering a future marked by resilience, hope, and profound transformation. There is a profound hope rooted in faith in these challenging modern times, where darkness seems pervasive. Simon Peter reminds us, "But in your hearts revere Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect" ( 1 Pet. 3:15 ). This hope assures us that the battle for Christian influence in America is not lost. We can fortify our presence and impact by diligently building local infrastructure, fostering strong community bonds, and establishing resilient institutions. The steadfast and united church will ultimately overcome the "gates of Hades" as Jesus promised ( see Matt. 16:18 ), demonstrating hope and faith will prevail even in the most trying times. We do well in recalling MacIntyre's "very different St. Benedict" and continue speaking in the public square. However, we must also be ready to withdraw, as Dreher suggests, when we become too much like the world around us, forsaking the gospel for temporary sociopolitical victories. For more on this theme, see our biographies for Matthew of Capernaum and Simon the Zealot , apostles of Jesus who started on different sides of the political spectrum. Bibliography American Solidarity Party. "Platform & Principles." https://www.solidarity-party.org/platform . Belloc, Hilaire. The Servile State. Edinburgh: Foulis, 1912. Bruenig, Elizabeth. "City of Rod." Democracy: A Journal of Ideas . March 1, 2017. https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/city-of-rod . Chalk, Casey. "Catholic Economics for the 21st Century." Crisis Magazine . August 2, 2023. https://crisismagazine.com/opinion/catholic-economics-for-the-21st-century . Chesterton, G. K. The Outline of Sanity . New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1927. Clark, Charles. "The Economics of Distributism." Crisis Magazine , May 16, 2012. DeVille, Adam A. J. "Reading Rod Dreher's Benedict Option with MacIntyre and Schmemann." Catholic World Report . May 5, 2017. https://www.catholicworldreport.com/2017/05/05/reading-rod-drehers-benedict-option-with-macintyre-and-schmemann . ⸻. "Would Alasdair MacIntyre Live in a 'Benedict Option' Community?" Catholic World Report . July 14, 2015. https://www.catholicworldreport.com/2015/07/14/would-alasdair-macintyre-live-in-a-benedict-option-community . Domencic, Sean H. T. "'A New Set of Social Forms': Alasdair MacIntyre on the 'Benedict Option.'" Tradistae . April 21, 2020. https://tradistae.wordpress.com/2020/04/21/macintyre-benop . ⸻. "What Is an Intentional Community?" Tradistae . September 27, 2019. https://tradistae.wordpress.com/2019/09/27/define-intcomm . Dreher, Rod. The Benedict Option: A Strategy for Christians in a Post-Christian Nation . New York: Sentinel, 2017. ⸻. "Benedict Option FAQ." The American Conservative . October 6, 2015. https://www.theamericanconservative.com/benedict-option-faq . ⸻. " Benedict Option Omnibus." The American Conservative . January 6, 2016. https://www.theamericanconservative.com/benedict-option-omnibus . ⸻.  "The Benedict Option's Vision for a Christian Village." Christianity Today . February 17, 2017. https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2017/march/benedict-options-vision-for-christian-village.html . ⸻. Crunchy Cons: The New Conservative Counterculture and Its Return to Roots . eBook. New York: Crown, 2010. ⸻.  "The Meaning of the Benedict Option." The American Conservative . August 8, 2018. https://www.theamericanconservative.com/meaning-of-the-benedict-option . Gordon, Mark. "Getting Practical with the Benedict Option." Plough . August 10, 2018. https://www.plough.com/en/topics/community/intentional-community/getting-practical-with-the-benedict-option# . Libresco, Leah. Building the Benedict Option: A Guide to Gathering Two or Three Together in His Name . San Francisco: Ignatius, 2018. MacIntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory . Third ed. Notre Dame, IN: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 2007. p. 263. Meador, Jake. "Reviewing Rod Dreher's 'The Benedict Option.'" Mere Orthodoxy . March 14, 2017. https://mereorthodoxy.com/book-review-the-benedict-option-rod-dreher . Médaille. John C. "An Introduction to Distributism." The Distributist Review . January 11, 2024. https://distributistreview.com/archive/an-introduction-to-distributism . ⸻. " The Economics of Distributism." The Imaginative Conservative . September 2, 2010. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2010/09/economics-of-distributism-part-i-john-medaille.html . ⸻. " The Economics of Distributism III: Equity and Equilibrium." The Imaginative Conservative . September 7, 2010. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2010/09/economics-of-distributism-iii-equity.html . ⸻. " The Economics of Distributism II: Political Economy as a Science." The Imaginative Conservative . September 3, 2010. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2010/09/economics-of-distributism-ii-political.html . ⸻. "The Economics of Distributism IV: Property and the Just Wage." The Imaginative Conservative . September 10, 2010. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2010/09/economics-of-distributism-iv-property.html . ⸻. "The Economics of Distributism V: The Practice of Distributism." The Imaginative Conservative . September 11, 2010. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2010/09/economics-of-distributism-v-practice-of.html . Pearce, Joseph. "What is Distributism? A Controversial Alternative to Socialism and Plutocracy." Crisis Magazine . June 16, 2014. https://crisismagazine.com/opinion/distributism-understanding-controversial-alternative-socialism-plutocracy . Powell, Bill. "Capitalist? Socialist? Distributist." Crisis Magazine . October 20, 2008. https://crisismagazine.com/opinion/capitalist-socialist-distributist . Renn, Aaron M., and John Hirschauer. "Christians in the Moral Minority." Produced by City Journal. 10 Blocks , August 21, 2024. Podcast, MP3 audio, 20:45. https://www.city-journal.org/multimedia/christians-in-the-moral-minority . Richert, Scott P. "The Real Benedict Option." Crisis Magazine . July 11, 2017. https://crisismagazine.com/opinion/real-benedict-option . Salter, Alexander W. The Political Economy of Distributism: Property, Liberty, and the Common Good . Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 2023. Schlueter, Nathan. "Distributism: A Third Way." The Imaginative Conservative . February 17, 2014. Shapiro, Edward S. "A Distributist Society." Crisis Magazine . January 1, 1984. https://crisismagazine.com/vault/a-distributist-society . Wax, Trevin. "The Benedict Option: Good Strategy, Bad Posture." The Gospel Coalition . March 20, 2017. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/blogs/trevin-wax/my-take-on-the-benedict-option-good-as-a-strategy-bad-as-a-posture . Weber, Dane J., and Donald P. Goodman III, eds. The Distributism Debate . Woodbridge, VA: Goretti, 2006.

Introduction Trigger warning : Make no mistake: politicians do not care about your faith in Jesus; they only can and will exploit it for their own secular—and, often very sinful—whims. This statement refers to  all politicians , whether authoritarian, centrist, conservative, liberal, or libertarian. There is only one Lord and Savior, only one name under heaven that can save us: Jesus the Messiah, the blessed and only Sovereign, the King of kings and Lord of lords ( see   Acts 4:12 ; 1 Tim. 6:15 ). Because the word "Christ" ( Christos ; G5547 ) means "anointed King and Priest," all Christians  are first and foremost royal subjects of God's kingdom of heaven ( see   1 Pet. 2:9 ). Most people have not heard the word "sacralism." However, in our culture wars that set politicized factions of Christendom against militant secularists, many of us are pretty familiar with the concept under the terms "civil religion," "nationalism," or "fundamentalism." Nonetheless, sacralism is the word that best applies to "that perspective on society that views church and state as being tied together, rather than complete and separate entities. In other words, all people within a given geographical or political region are considered members of whichever ecclesiastical institution happens to be dominant" (Hudson, p. 122). In sacralism, the state is the religion, which results in a civil religion inspired by "Christian nation myths." Neither Jesus nor Paul of Tarsus advocated for a union of church and state, and the idea cannot be found in the New Testament. Instead, the problem of Christian sacralism began with the Roman emperor Constantine I (c. AD 280–337) in the fourth century, some 300 years after Jesus. This "Constantinian shift" in Christianity from a populist network of self-governing ecumenical churches to an ecclesiastical monarchy began with the Edict of Milan in AD 313, which legalized Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. The emperor Theodosius I (AD 347–395) codified this law as a sacralist arrangement between Rome and the Christian bishops with his declaration of Christianity as the official Roman civil religion in AD 392, outlawing paganism as well as every other religion. Coincidentally, the late-antiquity Latin phrase Cuius regio, eius religio ("Whoever controls the region decides its religion") best represents the definition of sacralism . ​Definitions of Key Terms in Sacralism ​ Before we continue with this discussion, let us evaluate some definitions. First of all, there is nothing wrong with being a patriot , which refers to "one who loves and supports their country," deriving from the Greek adjective patrikos ( G3967 ; "belonging to the fathers, ancestors"). In other words, a patriot considers their home country an ancestral "fatherland" ( patria , G3965 ). Patrikos turns out exactly once in the New Testament, when Paul wrote, "I advanced in Judaism beyond many among my people of the same age, for I was far more zealous for the traditions of my ancestors " ( Gal. 1:14 ). Patria shows up three times in the New Testament, which the New International Version (NIV) renders as "line," "peoples," or "family" ( see Luke 2:4 ; Acts 3:25 ; Eph. 3:15 ). Nevertheless, civic duty is a good thing, and the best communities across the world thrive from it. Simple things like visiting local businesses and the hometown ballpark are idyllic ways we all love to show civic duty. However, when that benevolent self-identification turns into a vicious denial of others—seizing control of resources and property—this is nationalism. A nationalist is someone with "loyalty and devotion to a nation, especially with a sense of national consciousness exalting one nation above all others and placing primary emphasis on promoting its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations or supranational groups." So, when a so-called "Christian nationalist" merges their religion with their nationalism, they create an immoral worldview that is "sacral," a syncretic blend of the sacred and secular. Yes, sacralism is a syncretic religion, just like voodoo or santería. The roots are just as corrupt, lending to the term "civil religion." Make no mistake: A follower of a nationalistic civil religion is not a true believer of the Christian faith but an evildoer who uses religion for their sinful agendas. This is why Jesus' valid message in scripture angers and alienates the civil religion nationalists in our churches. Moreover, national flags do not belong inside church buildings and should not be seen around the property. Our allegiance belongs to God alone, and we know that giving our devotion and time to anything else is "image worship" (Greek: eidōlolatria ; G1495 , "idolatry"). Paul asked, "What agreement is there between the temple of God and idols? For we are the temple of the living God" ( 2 Cor. 6:16 ). ​ No Country for Old Christians ​ In his letter to the Philippian church, Paul admonished them, "But our citizenship is in heaven. And we eagerly await a Savior from there, the Lord Jesus Christ" ( Phil. 3:20 ). Likewise, Simon Peter warned, "Dear friends, I urge you, as foreigners and exiles, to abstain from sinful desires, which wage war against your soul" ( 1 Pet. 2:11 ). This idea that Christians are merely pilgrims in this world continued well into the next few centuries. For example, the Letter to Diognetus (c. AD 200) best explains what it means for Christians to be pilgrims rather than nationalists: For the Christians are distinguished from other men neither by country, nor language, nor the customs which they observe. For they neither inhabit cities of their own, nor employ a peculiar form of speech, nor lead a life which is marked out by any singularity. The course of conduct which they follow has not been devised by any speculation or deliberation of inquisitive men; nor do they, like some, proclaim themselves the advocates of any merely human doctrines. But, inhabiting Greek as well as barbarian cities, according to the lot each of them has determined, and following the customs of the natives in respect to clothing, food, and the rest of their ordinary conduct, they display to us their wonderful and confessedly striking method of life. They dwell in their own countries, but simply as sojourners. As citizens, they share in all things with others and yet endure all things as if foreigners. Every foreign land is to them as their native country and every land of their birth as a land of strangers. They marry, as do all [others]; they beget children; but they do not destroy their offspring [ see " Pastoral Response: Abortion "]. They have a common table, but not a common bed. They are in the flesh, but they do not live after the flesh. They pass their days on earth, but they are citizens of heaven. They obey the prescribed laws and, at the same time, surpass the laws in their lives. They love all men and are persecuted by all. They are unknown and condemned; they are put to death and restored to life ( Ch. 5, "Manners of the Christians" ). ​ Give to Caesar What Is Caesar's ​ Sacralists use two main passages as proof texts for their worldview, beginning with Jesus' profound lesson contrasting the Roman emperor (Latin: Caesar ) with God: "Tell us then, what is your opinion? Is it right to pay the imperial tax to Caesar or not?" But Jesus, knowing their evil intent, said, "You hypocrites, why are you trying to trap me? Show me the coin used for paying the tax." They brought him a denarius, and he asked them, "Whose image is this? And whose inscription?" "Caesar's," they replied. Then he said to them, "So give back to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's" ( Matt. 22:17-21 ). ​ The typical American interpretation of Jesus' teaching reads in (i.e., eisegesis) the Establishment Clause, a stipulation at the beginning of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof" (National Constitution Center). Moreover, this is a significant category error, considering the Bible and the United States Constitution have vastly different contexts and meanings. Christians should not be using modern political documents to interpret scripture. No, Jesus was not teaching first-century Jews to separate their religion from politics. In context, he responded to Pharisees with a libertarian stance toward the Roman Empire versus the Zealots (e.g., Simon ), who led various insurgencies against it. Both groups wanted to trap Jesus into siding with one side, a zero-sum game that would make him either an enemy of the state or the Jewish people if he had fallen for it. Far from picking a side, Jesus redirected the Pharisees and the Zealots to look to God. Both groups were guilty of being too concerned about worldly goals but failed to strive for the kingdom of heaven ( see " Kingdom of God & Heaven "). We, Christians, know better than to make this same mistake. So, what does "give back to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's" mean if it has nothing to do with the separation of church and state? Once we remove the blinders of contemporary Western systematic theology and open our eyes to the New Testament's ancient Mediterranean biblical theology, we see that Jesus was contrasting the image of God—humankind—with the emperor's image engraved on the coin. With this better understanding, we now see that Jesus said that Jews paying Roman taxes had nothing to do with their relationship with God. The coin was the legitimate property of the emperor, so it was his to take and for the Jews to return. However, the soul is the property of God, something no politician could ever take from him. A common phrase we hear today, "You can take my body, but you will never have my soul," gives us a better interpretation of Jesus' lesson than the Establishment Clause. A small metal coin is the only thing the emperor can claim from us, but God's jurisprudence and providence extend to all humankind. Jesus taught that the emperor could have his money because God owns so much more, and his blessings for us are much more incredible! "Why would people gain the whole world but lose their lives?" ( Mark 8:36 ). Keep in mind, the emperor's coin was technically a graven image forbidden to Jews, mainly because its pagan symbolism implied the emperor's supposed deity, and was thereby, a violation of the second commandment ( see Exod. 20:4 ). The Greek noun charagma ( G5480 ; lit. "imprint" or "graven image") translated as "image" in the NIV ( see Acts 17:29 ) was the same word that John used to represent the mark of the beast ( see Rev. 16:2 ; 19:20 ). Therefore, the Jewish leaders were guilty of nationalism and idolatry. This was best exemplified when they declared to the Roman prefect of Judea, Pontius Pilate, "If you let this man go, you are no friend of Caesar. Anyone who claims to be a king opposes Caesar. . . . We have no king but Caesar" ( John 19:12 , 15 ). As Christians, we only have God's image and no king but Jesus, who tells us: Greater love has no one than this: to lay down one's life for one's friends. You are my friends if you do what I command. I no longer call you servants, because a servant does not know his master's business. Instead, I have called you friends, for everything that I learned from my Father I have made known to you ( John 15:13-15 ). ​ Conclusion ​ The other passage that sacralists willfully misinterpret is Paul's thesis statement about Christians and the Roman government. Yes, reading the Bible typologically and applying its meaning for today is essential, but we must do so according to its original setting. When Paul wrote his letter to Christians living in Rome, the empire's very heart, he addressed people who could not vote for their leaders. Although some believers, like Paul ( see Acts 22:25-27 ), had Roman citizenship, most first-century Christians did not. We moderns must be mindful not to assume the context of a democratic constitutional republic when reading the following: ​ Let everyone be subject to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God. Consequently, whoever rebels against the authority is rebelling against what God has instituted, and those who do so will bring judgment on themselves. For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong. Do you want to be free from fear of the one in authority? Then do what is right and you will be commended. For the one in authority is God's servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for rulers do not bear the sword for no reason. They are God's servants, agents of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer. Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also as a matter of conscience. This is also why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God's servants, who give their full time to governing. Give to everyone what you owe them: If you owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor ( Rom. 13:1-7 ). ​ Paul's instructions here are consistent with Jesus' teaching of "give back to Caesar," as well as the Covenant of Noah between God and all nations (cf. Gen. 9:4-6 ; see " Doctrine & Praxis ," p. 8). Respecting the government does not mean we must swear our soul-felt allegiance to it. Remember, Paul himself was accused of "defying Caesar's decrees, saying that there is another king, one called Jesus" ( Acts 17:7 ). Likewise, when the Sanhedrin tried Peter and John, they declared, "Which is right in God's eyes: to listen to you, or to him? You be the judges! As for us, we cannot help speaking about what we have seen and heard" ( Acts 4:19-20 ). Yes, this was a form of civil disobedience, which is justified when a secular government tries to suppress God's church. In contrast, the Christian bishops of the fourth century were weary of nearly 300 years of Roman persecution (esp., Nero, Domitian, and Diocletian), so they greeted Constantine's reforms with much enthusiasm. To their defense, the bishops subsequently delineated a "two swords" political philosophy that kept the church separate from the empire, unlike the former pagan regimes in which the Roman Senate deified their Caesars. However, they also developed a sacralist worldview in which military service was no longer prohibited for believers ( see " Peacemakers & Just War "), culminating in the violent Crusades (1095–1291) that, at times, had Christians going to war with other Christians. By the time former U.S. president George W. Bush (b. 1946)—an Evangelical—remarked, "This crusade [holy war], this war on terrorism, is going to take a while," Constantinian sacralism was a well-entrenched part of Christendom. This is to our shame. ​ As Christians, we know that God "makes nations great, and destroys them; he enlarges nations, and disperses them" ( Job 12:23 ). Likewise, the prophet Amos recorded God asking, "Did I not bring Israel up from Egypt, the Philistines from Caphtor and the Arameans from Kir?" ( 9:7 ). In other words, God formed the boundaries of all nations, not just Israel ( see Deut. 32:8 ). Who are we to fight amongst ourselves over who is faster, stronger, and better? One day, every man, woman, and child from every nation under heaven must bow their knee and "acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father" ( Phil. 2:10-11 ). Moreover, every nation will be erased from the map when God inaugurates the new earth, making the old one pass away ( see Rev. 21:1 ). Finally, this advice from Paul, which is consistent with his message in Romans 13, teaches us the proper way to view government: ​ I urge, then, first of all, that petitions, prayers, intercession and thanksgiving be made for all people—for kings and all those in authority, that we may live peaceful and quiet lives in all godliness and holiness ( 1 Tim. 2:1-2 ). ​ Let us "Make the Commission Great Again" by doing what Jesus commanded: "Therefore, go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" ( Matt. 28:19 ; see " Cost of Christian Discipleship "). This is the only way we can truly reach the "leavers" who chose "Chrexit" to deconstruct and abandon the church. ​ Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you have made of one blood all the peoples of the earth, and sent your blessed Son to preach peace to those who are far off and to those who are near: Grant that people everywhere may seek after you and find you; bring the nations into your fold; pour out your Spirit upon all flesh, and hasten the coming of your kingdom; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord. Amen .​ Bibliography ​ Archer, Brad. "A Biblical View of Patriotism." Unlocking the Bible (blog). June 30, 2016. https://unlockingthebible.org/2016/06/a-biblical-view-of-patriotism . Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. ​ The Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. p. 24. http://bcp2019.anglicanchurch.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/BCP2019.pdf . ​ Britannica, eds. "Edict of Milan." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edict-of-Milan . Dickson, Gary, Marshall W. Baldwin, and Thomas F. Madden. "Crusades." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades .​ ​​Dobson, Kent, ed. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Grant, Robert M. The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary 2. Ed. David Noel Freedman. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1992. p. 201. ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ Kidd, Thomas S. "Christian Nationalism vs. Christian Patriotism." Columbia, MO: The Gospel Coalition, 2020. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/christian-nationalism-patriotism . ​ Leonard, Angel. Enlightenment East and West . Albany: SUNY Press, 1994. p. 219. ​ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. ​ Mandal, U.C. Dictionary of Public Administration . New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, 2007. p. 461. ​ McCoy, Daniel. "Is Christian Nationalism Faithfulness? 4 Lessons from the Constantine Years." Franklin, TN: Renew.org. https://renew.org/christian-nationalism . Roberts, Alexander, and James Donaldson, trans. "Diognetus." Peter Kirby, edited for Early Christian Writings, 2001. http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/diognetus-roberts.html . ​ Verduin, Leonard. The Anatomy of a Hybrid: A Study in Church–State Relationships . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976. ⸻. The Reformers and Their Stepchildren . The Dissent and Nonconformity Series, no. 14. Paris, AR: Baptist Standard Bearer, 2001. ​ von Rad, Gerhard. Holy War in Ancient Israel . Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2000. pp. 18-19, 70. ​ Waldman, Peter, and Hugh Pope. "'Crusade' Reference Reinforces Fears War on Terrorism Is against Muslims." The Wall Street Journal . New York: Dow Jones & Co., 2001. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001020294332922160 . Wright, David F. "313 The Edict of Milan." Christian History 28 (Christianity Today, 1990). https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue-28/313-edict-of-milan.html . ​ Wright, N. T. How God Became King: The Forgotten Story of the Gospels . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016.

Introduction What has Auschwitz to do with Jerusalem?—or with Cambridge, Chicago, Collegeville, Downers Grove, Grand Rapids, London, Minneapolis, Nashville, New York, Oxford, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Wheaton, or any other city that hosts a major Christian or Jewish publisher? I loosely base this question on a more ancient one by Tertullian of Carthage (c. AD 155–c. 220): "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" ( Prescription against Heretics 7 ). Auschwitz is the German name for the Polish town of Oświęcim, which began in the twelfth century and currently features a population of about 40,000. Yet, we only recall five short years (1940–1945) of its more than 700. This is because an estimated 1.5 million people died in the Auschwitz-Birkenau (Polish: Oświęcim-Brzezinka ) concentration camp during this time—90% of them were Jews. This is about 35 times the number of residents there today. Therefore, Auschwitz is a symbol of the Holocaust (Hebrew: Shoah ; H7724b ; "Destruction"), or what Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) and his National Socialists (Nazis) termed the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" (German: Endlösung der Judenfrage ). ​ Jerusalem was the undisputed center of early Christianity, which was always the most sacred place in Judaism. The disciples of Jesus evangelized most of the Mediterranean world, launching from the Jewish Christian church of Jerusalem. Most importantly, the city symbolizes where God meets us in our physical world, both in the ancient temple and in the person of Jesus. If Jerusalem proves God's faithfulness to all humankind, it follows that Auschwitz represents our most faithless rebellion against him. It is one thing for elitist Judean priests and imperialistic Roman pagans to crucify Jesus, but it is another for supposed "Christians" to destroy God's image in mass murder. Nevertheless, this article is about the good from our deep soul-searching that followed World War II. Antisemitism in the Early Church The picture at the beginning of this section features a bas-relief of soldiers carrying the temple's equipment and furniture through the streets of Rome. The most notable is the menorah ( H4501 ), the seven-branched lampstand. This bas-relief is part of the Arch of Titus, which the emperor Domitian (AD 51–96) built to honor Titus' (AD 39–81) siege of Jerusalem in AD 70, including the temple's destruction. However, this was not an antisemitic hate crime but an act of war. The persecution of Jews at Roman hands should have ended as the empire grew increasingly Christian—especially with Constantine's (c. AD 280–337) edict that legalized Christianity in AD 313. Sadly, it did not. The early church leaders between the second and fifth centuries warned against the dangers of Judaizing , which requires Gentiles to follow the Law of Moses. Albeit a legitimate concern that Paul of Tarsus addressed in his letter to the Galatians ( see 2:15-21 ), the early church fathers, however, graduated from objecting to the Jewish religion to outright hatred for the Jews as an ethnicity. For example, Justin Martyr (c. AD 100–c. 165) made religious objections in his Dialogue with Trypho : For the circumcision according to the flesh, which is from Abraham, was given for a sign; that you may be separated from other nations, and from us; and that you alone may suffer that which you now justly suffer; and that your land may be desolate, and your cities burned with fire; and that strangers may eat your fruit in your presence, and not one of you may go up to Jerusalem ( Ch. 16 ). ​ Two centuries later, John Chrysostom (AD 354–407) published a series of eight homilies titled Against the Jews (Greek: kata Ioudaiōn ; G2596 ; G2453 ). This was just one of three writings in a patristic genre called adversus Judaeos , the Latin translation for "against the Jews." The other two were attributed to Tertullian and Gregory of Nyssa (c. AD 335–c. 394). Chrusostomos , a nickname given to John meaning "golden mouth" ( G5552 ; G4750 ), preached these choice words: Jews are dogs, stiff-necked, gluttonous drunkards. They are beasts unfit for work . . . the Jews had fallen into a condition lower than the vilest animals . . . the synagogue is worse than a brothel and a drinking shop; it is a den of scoundrels, a temple of demons, the cavern of devils, an unlawful assembly of the assassins of Christ. . . . I hate the Jews because they violate the law . . . it is the duty of all Christians to hate the Jews ( Against the Jews , Hom. 1, 2:2, 6, 7; 3:1 ). Antisemitism in the Medieval Church ​ The antisemitism of the early church leaders from the second to the fourth centuries (i.e., the ante-Nicene period) heavily influenced their successors well into the sixteenth century and on into the twentieth. Even today, we refer to men such as Justin Martyr and John Chrysostom as "early church fathers" and label their theological writings as "patristic," i.e., fatherly. While this tradition honors the ante-Nicene clergy and theologians for their works on Jesus' identity, the definition of the Trinity, and the canonization of the New Testament—their antisemitism cannot be ignored. Whereas these men did well to defend the apostolic teaching of the first century into later generations, they developed a heretical doctrine called replacement theology or supersessionism . Both descriptions refer to the mistaken belief that the Christian church replaces or supersedes the Jewish people as God's chosen. In a medieval sub-genre of Christian art known as Ecclesia et Synagoga , Latin for "Church and Synagogue," two women represent the supersession of Christianity over Judaism. Ecclesia wears a crown and holds a processional cross with a chalice, alluding to the church's ordained leadership under the new covenant. At the same time, a blindfolded Synagoga clutches a broken lance symbolizing the Jews as "Christ-killers" (ironically, it was a Roman soldier who pierced Jesus with a spear [ see John 19:34 ]). In his letter to the Roman church, Paul addressed this erroneous view among the Christian Gentiles even in his own time ( see Rom. 11 ). However, rather than heeding Paul's warning; many early church leaders formed toxic relationships with the Jews. ​ However, the antisemitism of the medieval church was not limited to theological concepts. During the First Crusade (1095–1096), over five thousand Jews were murdered. About 1120, this prompted the Roman bishop Calixtus II (c. 1065–1124) to issue a charter known as sicut Judaeis (i.e., "Thus to the Jews") to forbid Christians from harming Jews and their property. Nonetheless, this document could not protect the Jews from the Christians for long. In the early Middle Ages, most European nations kept their citizens from charging interest based on a scriptural ban in Deuteronomy ( 23:19-20 ). Ironically, this command was for the Israelites not to demand interest from other Israelites but only from Gentiles. Therefore, the Jews found that their money lending and collection of interest did not contradict their scriptures. What began as an economic restriction would ironically become one of the most widespread stereotypes of Jews as greedy for money. The following two mentions of​ antisemitism in the medieval church are ones that influenced the hate crimes of Nazi Germany on Kristallnacht —the "crystal night" when SA ( Sturmabteilung , i.e., "Storm Detachment") paramilitants destroyed Jewish shops and shipped 30,000 Jews to concentration camps from November 9–10, 1938. Centuries before, the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 established canons 68 and 69 , which forced Jews to wear distinctive clothing from the Christian population and banned them from holding public office. These decrees very quickly escalated antisemitic policies throughout Europe, with Jews eventually having to wear a unique yellow or white badge of Jewish identity and their clothes. This council, of which the warlike Roman bishop Innocent III (c. 1160–1216) presided, caused so much antisemitic fear among Europeans that claims of ritualistic child murder (i.e., "blood libel") against Jews were commonplace. They also blamed their Jewish neighbors for desecrating communion wafers believed to be Christ's transubstantiated body—a perceived crime against divinity. However, all of these accusations were baseless. About 300 years later, the Christian church had an excellent opportunity to change its position on Judaism when it sought to reform many other false doctrines taught by Roman Catholic leaders for centuries. Men such as the German pastor Martin Luther (1483–1546) began the Protestant Reformation (1517–1648) at the Castle Church in Wittenberg to oppose the heresies of Vatican dogma. At first, he welcomed the Jews into his new church family. However, when Luther saw they did not want to convert to Christianity under new leadership, he despised them. Luther was nine years old when Spanish monarchs Ferdinand II (1452–1516) and Isabella I (1451–1504)—the same ones who dispatched Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) to the Americas in 1492—began to expel the Jews from Spain that same year during the Inquisition (1478–1834). The "Lutheran" church would dominate Germany, inheriting much of Luther's antisemitism. In 1543, he published On Jews and Their Lies (German: Von den Juden und ihren Lügen ). Here is one excerpt to illustrate Luther's view of the Jewish people: ​ And so, dear Christian, beware of the Jews . . . you can see how God's wrath has consigned them to the devil, who has robbed them not only of a proper understanding of the scriptures, but also of common human reason, modesty, and sense. . . . Thus, when you see a genuine Jew you may come with a good conscience cross yourself, and boldly say, "There goes the devil incarnate." From Wittenberg to Nuremberg ​ The connection between Luther and Kristallnacht is neither a literary device nor sensational rhetoric for the sake of this article. In parts 11–13 of On Jews and Their Lies , he wrote some chilling advice to German believers, foreshadowing Kristallnacht and almost every detail of the Holocaust to a T. In closing this section, consider this 1946 testimony by Julius Streicher (1885–1946)—who founded the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer (i.e., "The Stormer")—at his Nuremberg trial for genocide: ​ I did not intend to agitate or inflame but to enlighten. Antisemitic publications have existed in Germany for centuries. . . . In the book On the Jews and Their Lies , Dr. Martin Luther writes that the Jews are a serpent's brood and one should burn down their synagogues and destroy them. Dr. Martin Luther would probably sit in my place in the defendants' dock today if his book had been considered by the prosecution [i.e., the International Military Tribunal]. Reconciliation after Auschwitz ​ World War II and the Holocaust could have widened the rift between Jews and Christians well into the twentieth century. However, beauty arose from the ashes. This is not to downplay the horrors of Auschwitz and the millennia of antisemitism that led to it. God, as he is inclined to do, took what the Nazis intended for evil and turned it into good to preserve a great nation: Israel ( see Gen. 50:20 ). In 1948—three years after the Allies defeated Nazi Germany—the Jewish people transitioned from living in fear to establish a newly independent State of Israel boldly. "Holocaust guilt" inspired all Western civilization to support this country, whether culturally, financially, militarily, politically, or religiously. ​ "Holocaust guilt" also changed the course of biblical studies among Western universities. Before World War II, most of the research into the Bible and its context reflected a supersessionist bias. For example, Jesus was given Gentile labels as "cynic" or "philosopher." This is not unlike medieval Christian art, which consistently portrayed Jesus as a European king with a pale complexion. After World War II, biblical scholars realized that Jewish sources gave more context to the Old and New Testaments. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls starting in 1946—just one year after the war ended—suddenly presented a Jewish setting of the gospels that scholars once considered Hellenistic. Likewise, theologians explored the "Jewishness of Jesus" and offered a "new perspective on Paul," redefining both men as discerning leaders of their communities rather than outside critics. The most surprising phenomenon is the rise of Messianic Judaism : Torah-observant Jews who acknowledge Jesus as their Messiah. In the latter half of the twentieth century, Christians realized how Jewish commentaries like the Talmud could shed light on obscure verses and resolve apparent contradictions. They also understood how the Jewish feasts correspond with Jesus' life and teaching ( see " Calendar of the Church "). ​ In the fall of 2015, Saint Joseph's University in Philadelphia unveiled a new statue called "Ecclesia and Synagoga in Our Time" (pictured above). Francis (b. 1936), the Catholic bishop of Rome, and the Orthodox Jewish rabbi Abraham Skorka (b. 1950), a professor at Saint Joseph's University who worked with its Institute for Jewish–Catholic Relations from 2018 to 2020, attended the event. Unlike the medieval art tradition, both women have crowns and sit beside each other. They learn together, sharing the scrolls of Judaism alongside the bound scriptures of Christianity. Today, we are seeing a reversal of what biblical scholars call the "parting of ways," or the time when the early church made a clean break from its Jewish forebears ( see " Jew & Gentile: Parting Ways "). Theologians and parishioners use the historical-grammatical method to consider the history of first-century Judea and the authors' intents. Christians are discovering the Mishnah while Jews reflect on the four gospels. This is to fulfill what God told us through the prophet Zechariah: ​ In those days, ten people from all languages and nations will take firm hold of one Jew by the hem of his robe and say, "Let us go with you, because we have heard that God is with you" ( 8:23 ). Conclusion In conclusion, the juxtaposition of Auschwitz and Jerusalem serves as a poignant reminder of the extremes of human experience and the complexities of faith. Auschwitz, with its harrowing history as a site of unimaginable suffering and genocide during the Holocaust, stands as a stark symbol of humanity's capacity for cruelty and moral failure. In contrast, Jerusalem, steeped in religious significance for both Jews and Christians, represents the hope for divine redemption and the possibility of reconciliation and renewal. The question "What has Auschwitz to do with Jerusalem?" challenges us to confront the darkest aspects of human nature while also seeking meaning and redemption in the face of tragedy. While Auschwitz may represent humanity's most faithless rebellion against God, Jerusalem embodies the promise of divine grace and the potential for spiritual awakening and healing. Through deep soul-searching and reflection, we can glean valuable lessons from the atrocities of Auschwitz and the enduring faith of Jerusalem. By acknowledging the depths of human depravity and the heights of divine love and mercy, we are compelled to strive for a world where such atrocities can never happen again, and where the values of compassion, justice, and reconciliation prevail. In this way, we honor the memory of those who perished in Auschwitz and affirm the enduring significance of Jerusalem as a symbol of hope and redemption for all humanity. ​ Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you created us in your image: Grant us grace to contend fearlessly against evil and to make no peace with oppression, and help us to use our freedom rightly in the establishment of justice in our communities and among the nations, to the glory of your holy Name; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen .​ Bibliography ​ Allen, Patricia. "SJU Announces Details of Sculpture to Mark 50 Years of New Catholic–Jewish Relationship." Philadelphia: Saint Joseph's Univ., 2015. https://www.sju.edu/news-events/news/sju-announces-details-sculpture-mark-50-years-new-catholic-jewish-relationship.​ ​ Bard, Mitchell G. "Papal Bulls." Jewish Virtual Library . Chevy Chase, MD: American–Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/papal-bulls . Berenbaum, Michael. "Auschwitz." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/place/Auschwitz . Boissoneault, Lorraine. "The First Moments of Hitler's Final Solution." Smithsonian . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 2016. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/first-moments-hitlers-final-solution-180961387 . ​ The Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. p. 659. https://bcp2019.anglicanchurch.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/BCP2019.pdf . Britannica, eds. "Ninety-five Theses." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/event/Ninety-five-Theses . ⸻. "Oświęcim." https://www.britannica.com/place/Oswiecim . Cantor, Ron. "Reconciling the Antisemitism of the Church Fathers with Their Devotion to Messiah." Kesher: A Journal of Messianic Judaism 42 (Messianic Jewish Theological Institute, 2023). https://www.kesherjournal.com/article/reconciling-the-antisemitism-of-the-church-fathers-with-their-devotion-to-messiah . Chrysostom, John. "Against the Jews, Hom. 1." Roger Pearse, edited for the Tertullian Project, 2011. https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/chrysostom_adversus_judaeos_01_homily1.htm . Evans, Craig A., and Donald A. Hagner. Anti-Semitism and Early Christianity: Issues of Polemic and Faith . Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993. ​ ​"'Final Solution': Overview." Holocaust Encyclopedia . Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/final-solution-overview . ​ "Fourth Lateran Council." The Catholic Encyclopedia . Kevin Knight, edited for New Advent, 2018. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09018a.htm . Holmes, Peter, trans. Ante-Nicene Fathers 3. Eds. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1885. Kevin Knight, edited for New Advent, 2018. https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm . ​ Howard, Bernard N. "Luther's Jewish Problem." Columbia, MO: The Gospel Coalition, 2017. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/luthers-jewish-problem . ​ Kokkonen, Susanna. "The Sad Legacy of Christian Anti-Semitism." Jerusalem: International Christian Embassy, 2013. https://int.icej.org/news/commentary/sad-legacy-christian-anti-semitism . ​ Luther, Martin. On the Jews and Their Lies (pts. 11–13). Trans. Martin H. Bertram. Chestnut Hill, MA: Council of Centers on Jewish–Christian Relations, 2008. https://www.ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/primary-texts-from-the-history-of-the-relationship/luther-1543 . ​ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. ​ Marans, Noam E. "On Luther and His Lies." The Christian Century . Chicago: Christian Century Foundation, 2017. https://www.christiancentury.org/article/critical-essay/on-luther-and-lies . ​ Martyr, Justin. "The Dialogue with Trypho." Trans. Philip Schaff. Chestnut Hill: MA: Council of Centers on Jewish–Christian Relations, 2008. https://www.ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/primary-texts-from-the-history-of-the-relationship/justin . ​ Mayer, Wendy, and Pauline Allen. John Chrysostom . London: Routledge, 2000. ​ Méndez-Oliver, Ana. "Frontier Identities and Migrating Souls: Re-Conceptualizing New Religious and Cultural Imaginaries in the Iberian Worlds." New York: Columbia Univ., 2017. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e7ac/df36b05b96d82a90162e806621bb09859499.pdf . ​ Menzies, Allan, ed. Ante-Nicene Fathers 3. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1889. Harry Plantinga, edited for Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1993–2020. https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.iii.vii.html . Rabbi Skorka. "Biography." London: Lucky Sparky, 2018. https://www.rabbiskorka.com/about-rabbi-abraham-skorka . "The Reformation." History Channel. New York: A&E Television Networks, 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/religion/reformation . Rowe, Nina. The Jew, the Cathedral and the Medieval City: Synagoga and Ecclesia in the Thirteenth Century . New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2011.​ Ryan, Edward A. "Spanish Inquisition." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Spanish-Inquisition . Schroeder, H. J., trans. "Fourth Lateran Council, 'Canons Concerning Jews.'" Chestnut Hill: MA: Council of Centers on Jewish–Christian Relations, 2008. https://www.ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/primary-texts-from-the-history-of-the-relationship/lateran4 . Schultheis, Emily. "In the Shadow of Auschwitz, A Town Seeks to Tell Its Own Story." Washington, DC: Institute of Current World Affairs, 2020. https://www.icwa.org/town-near-auschwitz-tells-its-story . Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . Second ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020. "Synagoga and Ecclesia in Our Time." Philadelphia: Institute for Jewish–Catholic Relations, Saint Joseph's Univ., 2015. https://www.sju.edu/college-arts-and-sciences/ijcr/synagoga-ecclesia#sju-dedicates-its-nostra-aetate-sculpture-blessed-by-pope-francis-two-days-later . Wright, David F. "313 The Edict of Milan." Christian History 28 (Christianity Today International, 1990). https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue-28/313-edict-of-milan.html .

Search Results All (104) Blog Posts (82) Other Pages (22) 104 items found for "" Blog Posts (82) An Epilogue to "The Benedict Option": A Distributist Strategy Introduction We must cling to age-old truths in a rapidly secularizing world fractured by identity politics. The Benedict Option (Sentinel, 2017) by the Eastern Orthodox journalist Rod Dreher (b. 1967) suggests a strategy of withdrawal and renewal inspired by Benedictine monasticism—a refuge amidst chaos. He based his book concept on this quote by the Roman Catholic philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre (b. 1929): "If the tradition of the virtues was able to survive the horrors of the last dark ages, we are not entirely without hope . . . We are waiting not for a Godot but for another—doubtless very different—St. Benedict." But how does this Benedictine approach harmonize with the Evangelical focus on individual conversion and the Wesleyan pursuit of holiness and societal change? And how does it mesh with the distributist ideal of economic fairness, promoting small, enduring communities? This epilogue regards a future where these viewpoints intersect, forging a comprehensive and optimistic way forward. Exploring this convergence means examining how different yet complementary perspectives can effectively address current challenges. The Benedictine emphasis on intentional community and spiritual depth resonates with the Evangelical zeal for personal growth. Moreover, the Wesleyan commitment to social justice and holiness can enrich the distributist focus on fair, localized economies. By integrating these elements, we can formulate a comprehensive and unified response to the complexities of modern life. Adopting this multifaceted approach facilitates the establishment of spiritually vibrant, economically just, and socially transformative communities, paving the way for a future that honors age-old wisdom and contemporary needs. Wesley's Vision: Personal & Social Holiness The Wesleyan tradition highlights the importance of personal and social holiness, resulting from the eighteenth-century revival movements. John Wesley (1703–1791) famously stated, "There is no holiness but social holiness." While the idea of secluding oneself from society, as suggested in The Benedict Option , may appear contradictory to the mission of societal transformation, we would do better to see it as a method of reforming the world from within—a deliberate step back to fortify our impact. According to this perspective, Wesleyan believers are not interested in forming self-contained virtuous communities. Their goal is also to foster spiritual and social revival that spreads the love of Christ outward. Just as Wesley preached in open fields, bringing the gospel to areas of need, modern Evangelicals can also adopt the Benedict Option to prepare themselves for service. Communities centered on spiritual practices and purposeful living are platforms for nurturing individuals to become messengers of grace and truth. The emphasis on holiness is not about seclusion but about bringing about change—within individuals and society. Wesleyan theology challenges us to consider: How can our communities shine as examples of love, justice, and truth in a world searching for hope? Confronting injustice and advocating for the innocent is essential. Despite the challenging nature of politics, we Christians have achieved significant success in the public arena. There is a noticeable change happening regarding crucial topics such as homosexuality and abortion, indicating a shift in societal perspectives and legal structures. These triumphs are not merely minor adjustments but essential landmarks in the more significant battle for justice and ethical principles. By actively participating in public discourse, our dedication to these issues can facilitate additional advancements and motivate others to support the creation of a society that respects the worth and dignity of all individuals. Distributism: An Economy of Solidarity Distributism , championed by the Roman Catholic thinkers G. K. Chesterton (1874–1936) and Hilaire Belloc (1870–1953), critiques unchecked capitalism and oppressive socialism. It envisions an economy where the government evenly distributes property, small businesses and local economies thrive, and corporations prioritize human dignity over profit. How does this economic vision intersect with the Benedict Option? For more information about distributism, see our article, " Biblical Case for Distributism ." The Benedictine emphasis on community and simplicity aligns closely with distributist ideals. Rather than endorsing large, anonymous markets overseen by remote authorities, distributism promotes local economies that enable individuals to thrive in their professions and connections. From a distributist perspective, the Benedict Option is not solely a retreat for spiritual purposes but also a transformation in economic practices. Communities embracing the Benedict Option could nurture local economies that eschew the materialism prevalent in contemporary society, opting instead to promote a culture of responsibility and well-being. Evangelicals view the economic standpoint as a matter of justice. Wesley demonstrated profound empathy for the less fortunate, emphasizing the importance of uniting faith and actions. A Christian distributist community aims to revive spirituality and promote economic fairness by establishing structures that prioritize reevaluating labor and protecting the marginalized. In the United States, the American Solidarity Party advocates the distributist position, named after the Solidarity (Polish: Solidarność ) trade union that contributed to the downfall of communism in Poland. A New Approach to the Benedict Option The Benedict Option, inspired by Wesleyan Evangelical zeal and distributist economic ideals, offers a way that steers clear of isolation and defeat. It urges Christians to form deliberate communities with spiritual vibrance and social justice. These communities act as sanctuaries for renewal and revitalization, where the world's fractures can begin to heal. Although this vision requires effort and entails sacrifices, devotion, and complete adherence to the teachings of Jesus, it also promises the opportunity for deep joy. These communities strive to seamlessly blend faith and work, worship and equity, and—most of all—prayer and advocacy. Within these societies, the church can once again emphasize its prophetic role. Just like in Wesley's time, it has the potential to illuminate a world in dire need of it—not by retreating, but by standing resolute, led by timeless wisdom, and empowered by the Holy Spirit. Let this proposal serve as an invitation to reevaluate the Benedict Option from the perspectives of Wesleyan and distributist principles—an invitation to endure the challenges ahead and flourish as a community defined by hope, honesty, and fairness. Conclusion Initially perceived as a retreat from the secular world, we can reimagine the Benedict Option as a holistic framework that integrates spiritual richness with proactive engagement in shaping societal transformation. Combining the Benedictine emphasis on intentional community, the Wesleyan dedication to individual and communal holiness, and the distributist principle of equitable economies, a more nuanced and pragmatic strategy unfolds. This strategy addresses individual and communal spiritual needs and economic and social justice issues, providing a dynamic and comprehensive response to contemporary challenges. Sean H. T. Domencic, at the Tradistae blog, says, "An intentional community is integralism on a small scale. It is not a retreat from political engagement, but a springboard for holy men and women as they work together in building a better world." The fusion of these perspectives offers a compelling model for modern Christian life that embraces the richness of ancient traditions while innovatively addressing the complexities of today's world. It invites believers to build communities that are not only sanctuaries of renewal but also active agents of change, reflecting a commitment to faith and action. As we navigate the fractures and uncertainties of our time, this integrated vision encourages us to cultivate environments where Christian faith, justice, and economic fairness intersect, fostering a future marked by resilience, hope, and profound transformation. There is a profound hope rooted in faith in these challenging modern times, where darkness seems pervasive. Simon Peter reminds us, "But in your hearts revere Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect" ( 1 Pet. 3:15 ). This hope assures us that the battle for Christian influence in America is not lost. We can fortify our presence and impact by diligently building local infrastructure, fostering strong community bonds, and establishing resilient institutions. The steadfast and united church will ultimately overcome the "gates of Hades" as Jesus promised ( see Matt. 16:18 ), demonstrating hope and faith will prevail even in the most trying times. We do well in recalling MacIntyre's "very different St. Benedict" and continue speaking in the public square. However, we must also be ready to withdraw, as Dreher suggests, when we become too much like the world around us, forsaking the gospel for temporary sociopolitical victories. For more on this theme, see our biographies for Matthew of Capernaum and Simon the Zealot , apostles of Jesus who started on different sides of the political spectrum. Bibliography American Solidarity Party. "Platform & Principles." https://www.solidarity-party.org/platform . Belloc, Hilaire. The Servile State. Edinburgh: Foulis, 1912. Bruenig, Elizabeth. "City of Rod." Democracy: A Journal of Ideas . March 1, 2017. https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/city-of-rod . Chalk, Casey. "Catholic Economics for the 21st Century." Crisis Magazine . August 2, 2023. https://crisismagazine.com/opinion/catholic-economics-for-the-21st-century . Chesterton, G. K. The Outline of Sanity . New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1927. Clark, Charles. "The Economics of Distributism." Crisis Magazine , May 16, 2012. DeVille, Adam A. J. "Reading Rod Dreher's Benedict Option with MacIntyre and Schmemann." Catholic World Report . May 5, 2017. https://www.catholicworldreport.com/2017/05/05/reading-rod-drehers-benedict-option-with-macintyre-and-schmemann . ⸻. "Would Alasdair MacIntyre Live in a 'Benedict Option' Community?" Catholic World Report . July 14, 2015. https://www.catholicworldreport.com/2015/07/14/would-alasdair-macintyre-live-in-a-benedict-option-community . Domencic, Sean H. T. "'A New Set of Social Forms': Alasdair MacIntyre on the 'Benedict Option.'" Tradistae . April 21, 2020. https://tradistae.wordpress.com/2020/04/21/macintyre-benop . ⸻. "What Is an Intentional Community?" Tradistae . September 27, 2019. https://tradistae.wordpress.com/2019/09/27/define-intcomm . Dreher, Rod. The Benedict Option: A Strategy for Christians in a Post-Christian Nation . New York: Sentinel, 2017. ⸻. "Benedict Option FAQ." The American Conservative . October 6, 2015. https://www.theamericanconservative.com/benedict-option-faq . ⸻. " Benedict Option Omnibus." The American Conservative . January 6, 2016. https://www.theamericanconservative.com/benedict-option-omnibus . ⸻. "The Benedict Option's Vision for a Christian Village." Christianity Today . February 17, 2017. https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2017/march/benedict-options-vision-for-christian-village.html . ⸻. Crunchy Cons: The New Conservative Counterculture and Its Return to Roots . eBook. New York: Crown, 2010. ⸻. "The Meaning of the Benedict Option." The American Conservative . August 8, 2018. https://www.theamericanconservative.com/meaning-of-the-benedict-option . Gordon, Mark. "Getting Practical with the Benedict Option." Plough . August 10, 2018. https://www.plough.com/en/topics/community/intentional-community/getting-practical-with-the-benedict-option# . Libresco, Leah. Building the Benedict Option: A Guide to Gathering Two or Three Together in His Name . San Francisco: Ignatius, 2018. MacIntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory . Third ed. Notre Dame, IN: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 2007. p. 263. Meador, Jake. "Reviewing Rod Dreher's 'The Benedict Option.'" Mere Orthodoxy . March 14, 2017. https://mereorthodoxy.com/book-review-the-benedict-option-rod-dreher . Médaille. John C. "An Introduction to Distributism." The Distributist Review . January 11, 2024. https://distributistreview.com/archive/an-introduction-to-distributism . ⸻. " The Economics of Distributism." The Imaginative Conservative . September 2, 2010. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2010/09/economics-of-distributism-part-i-john-medaille.html . ⸻. " The Economics of Distributism III: Equity and Equilibrium." The Imaginative Conservative . September 7, 2010. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2010/09/economics-of-distributism-iii-equity.html . ⸻. " The Economics of Distributism II: Political Economy as a Science." The Imaginative Conservative . September 3, 2010. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2010/09/economics-of-distributism-ii-political.html . ⸻. "The Economics of Distributism IV: Property and the Just Wage." The Imaginative Conservative . September 10, 2010. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2010/09/economics-of-distributism-iv-property.html . ⸻. "The Economics of Distributism V: The Practice of Distributism." The Imaginative Conservative . September 11, 2010. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2010/09/economics-of-distributism-v-practice-of.html . Pearce, Joseph. "What is Distributism? A Controversial Alternative to Socialism and Plutocracy." Crisis Magazine . June 16, 2014. https://crisismagazine.com/opinion/distributism-understanding-controversial-alternative-socialism-plutocracy . Powell, Bill. "Capitalist? Socialist? Distributist." Crisis Magazine . October 20, 2008. https://crisismagazine.com/opinion/capitalist-socialist-distributist . Renn, Aaron M., and John Hirschauer. "Christians in the Moral Minority." Produced by City Journal. 10 Blocks , August 21, 2024. Podcast, MP3 audio, 20:45. https://www.city-journal.org/multimedia/christians-in-the-moral-minority . Richert, Scott P. "The Real Benedict Option." Crisis Magazine . July 11, 2017. https://crisismagazine.com/opinion/real-benedict-option . Salter, Alexander W. The Political Economy of Distributism: Property, Liberty, and the Common Good . Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 2023. Schlueter, Nathan. "Distributism: A Third Way." The Imaginative Conservative . February 17, 2014. Shapiro, Edward S. "A Distributist Society." Crisis Magazine . January 1, 1984. https://crisismagazine.com/vault/a-distributist-society . Wax, Trevin. "The Benedict Option: Good Strategy, Bad Posture." The Gospel Coalition . March 20, 2017. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/blogs/trevin-wax/my-take-on-the-benedict-option-good-as-a-strategy-bad-as-a-posture . Weber, Dane J., and Donald P. Goodman III, eds. The Distributism Debate . Woodbridge, VA: Goretti, 2006. Sacralism: Patriot or Pilgrim Introduction Trigger warning : Make no mistake: politicians do not care about your faith in Jesus; they only can and will exploit it for their own secular—and, often very sinful—whims. This statement refers to all politicians , whether authoritarian, centrist, conservative, liberal, or libertarian. There is only one Lord and Savior, only one name under heaven that can save us: Jesus the Messiah, the blessed and only Sovereign, the King of kings and Lord of lords ( see Acts 4:12 ; 1 Tim. 6:15 ). Because the word "Christ" ( Christos ; G5547 ) means "anointed King and Priest," all Christians are first and foremost royal subjects of God's kingdom of heaven ( see 1 Pet. 2:9 ). Most people have not heard the word "sacralism." However, in our culture wars that set politicized factions of Christendom against militant secularists, many of us are pretty familiar with the concept under the terms "civil religion," "nationalism," or "fundamentalism." Nonetheless, sacralism is the word that best applies to "that perspective on society that views church and state as being tied together, rather than complete and separate entities. In other words, all people within a given geographical or political region are considered members of whichever ecclesiastical institution happens to be dominant" (Hudson, p. 122). In sacralism, the state is the religion, which results in a civil religion inspired by "Christian nation myths." Neither Jesus nor Paul of Tarsus advocated for a union of church and state, and the idea cannot be found in the New Testament. Instead, the problem of Christian sacralism began with the Roman emperor Constantine I (c. AD 280–337) in the fourth century, some 300 years after Jesus. This "Constantinian shift" in Christianity from a populist network of self-governing ecumenical churches to an ecclesiastical monarchy began with the Edict of Milan in AD 313, which legalized Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. The emperor Theodosius I (AD 347–395) codified this law as a sacralist arrangement between Rome and the Christian bishops with his declaration of Christianity as the official Roman civil religion in AD 392, outlawing paganism as well as every other religion. Coincidentally, the late-antiquity Latin phrase Cuius regio, eius religio ("Whoever controls the region decides its religion") best represents the definition of sacralism . ​Definitions of Key Terms in Sacralism ​ Before we continue with this discussion, let us evaluate some definitions. First of all, there is nothing wrong with being a patriot , which refers to "one who loves and supports their country," deriving from the Greek adjective patrikos ( G3967 ; "belonging to the fathers, ancestors"). In other words, a patriot considers their home country an ancestral "fatherland" ( patria , G3965 ). Patrikos turns out exactly once in the New Testament, when Paul wrote, "I advanced in Judaism beyond many among my people of the same age, for I was far more zealous for the traditions of my ancestors " ( Gal. 1:14 ). Patria shows up three times in the New Testament, which the New International Version (NIV) renders as "line," "peoples," or "family" ( see Luke 2:4 ; Acts 3:25 ; Eph. 3:15 ). Nevertheless, civic duty is a good thing, and the best communities across the world thrive from it. Simple things like visiting local businesses and the hometown ballpark are idyllic ways we all love to show civic duty. However, when that benevolent self-identification turns into a vicious denial of others—seizing control of resources and property—this is nationalism. A nationalist is someone with "loyalty and devotion to a nation, especially with a sense of national consciousness exalting one nation above all others and placing primary emphasis on promoting its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations or supranational groups." So, when a so-called "Christian nationalist" merges their religion with their nationalism, they create an immoral worldview that is "sacral," a syncretic blend of the sacred and secular. Yes, sacralism is a syncretic religion, just like voodoo or santería. The roots are just as corrupt, lending to the term "civil religion." Make no mistake: A follower of a nationalistic civil religion is not a true believer of the Christian faith but an evildoer who uses religion for their sinful agendas. This is why Jesus' valid message in scripture angers and alienates the civil religion nationalists in our churches. Moreover, national flags do not belong inside church buildings and should not be seen around the property. Our allegiance belongs to God alone, and we know that giving our devotion and time to anything else is "image worship" (Greek: eidōlolatria ; G1495 , "idolatry"). Paul asked, "What agreement is there between the temple of God and idols? For we are the temple of the living God" ( 2 Cor. 6:16 ). ​ No Country for Old Christians ​ In his letter to the Philippian church, Paul admonished them, "But our citizenship is in heaven. And we eagerly await a Savior from there, the Lord Jesus Christ" ( Phil. 3:20 ). Likewise, Simon Peter warned, "Dear friends, I urge you, as foreigners and exiles, to abstain from sinful desires, which wage war against your soul" ( 1 Pet. 2:11 ). This idea that Christians are merely pilgrims in this world continued well into the next few centuries. For example, the Letter to Diognetus (c. AD 200) best explains what it means for Christians to be pilgrims rather than nationalists: For the Christians are distinguished from other men neither by country, nor language, nor the customs which they observe. For they neither inhabit cities of their own, nor employ a peculiar form of speech, nor lead a life which is marked out by any singularity. The course of conduct which they follow has not been devised by any speculation or deliberation of inquisitive men; nor do they, like some, proclaim themselves the advocates of any merely human doctrines. But, inhabiting Greek as well as barbarian cities, according to the lot each of them has determined, and following the customs of the natives in respect to clothing, food, and the rest of their ordinary conduct, they display to us their wonderful and confessedly striking method of life. They dwell in their own countries, but simply as sojourners. As citizens, they share in all things with others and yet endure all things as if foreigners. Every foreign land is to them as their native country and every land of their birth as a land of strangers. They marry, as do all [others]; they beget children; but they do not destroy their offspring [ see " Pastoral Response: Abortion "]. They have a common table, but not a common bed. They are in the flesh, but they do not live after the flesh. They pass their days on earth, but they are citizens of heaven. They obey the prescribed laws and, at the same time, surpass the laws in their lives. They love all men and are persecuted by all. They are unknown and condemned; they are put to death and restored to life ( Ch. 5, "Manners of the Christians" ). ​ Give to Caesar What Is Caesar's ​ Sacralists use two main passages as proof texts for their worldview, beginning with Jesus' profound lesson contrasting the Roman emperor (Latin: Caesar ) with God: "Tell us then, what is your opinion? Is it right to pay the imperial tax to Caesar or not?" But Jesus, knowing their evil intent, said, "You hypocrites, why are you trying to trap me? Show me the coin used for paying the tax." They brought him a denarius, and he asked them, "Whose image is this? And whose inscription?" "Caesar's," they replied. Then he said to them, "So give back to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's" ( Matt. 22:17-21 ). ​ The typical American interpretation of Jesus' teaching reads in (i.e., eisegesis) the Establishment Clause, a stipulation at the beginning of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof" (National Constitution Center). Moreover, this is a significant category error, considering the Bible and the United States Constitution have vastly different contexts and meanings. Christians should not be using modern political documents to interpret scripture. No, Jesus was not teaching first-century Jews to separate their religion from politics. In context, he responded to Pharisees with a libertarian stance toward the Roman Empire versus the Zealots (e.g., Simon ), who led various insurgencies against it. Both groups wanted to trap Jesus into siding with one side, a zero-sum game that would make him either an enemy of the state or the Jewish people if he had fallen for it. Far from picking a side, Jesus redirected the Pharisees and the Zealots to look to God. Both groups were guilty of being too concerned about worldly goals but failed to strive for the kingdom of heaven ( see " Kingdom of God & Heaven "). We, Christians, know better than to make this same mistake. So, what does "give back to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's" mean if it has nothing to do with the separation of church and state? Once we remove the blinders of contemporary Western systematic theology and open our eyes to the New Testament's ancient Mediterranean biblical theology, we see that Jesus was contrasting the image of God—humankind—with the emperor's image engraved on the coin. With this better understanding, we now see that Jesus said that Jews paying Roman taxes had nothing to do with their relationship with God. The coin was the legitimate property of the emperor, so it was his to take and for the Jews to return. However, the soul is the property of God, something no politician could ever take from him. A common phrase we hear today, "You can take my body, but you will never have my soul," gives us a better interpretation of Jesus' lesson than the Establishment Clause. A small metal coin is the only thing the emperor can claim from us, but God's jurisprudence and providence extend to all humankind. Jesus taught that the emperor could have his money because God owns so much more, and his blessings for us are much more incredible! "Why would people gain the whole world but lose their lives?" ( Mark 8:36 ). Keep in mind, the emperor's coin was technically a graven image forbidden to Jews, mainly because its pagan symbolism implied the emperor's supposed deity, and was thereby, a violation of the second commandment ( see Exod. 20:4 ). The Greek noun charagma ( G5480 ; lit. "imprint" or "graven image") translated as "image" in the NIV ( see Acts 17:29 ) was the same word that John used to represent the mark of the beast ( see Rev. 16:2 ; 19:20 ). Therefore, the Jewish leaders were guilty of nationalism and idolatry. This was best exemplified when they declared to the Roman prefect of Judea, Pontius Pilate, "If you let this man go, you are no friend of Caesar. Anyone who claims to be a king opposes Caesar. . . . We have no king but Caesar" ( John 19:12 , 15 ). As Christians, we only have God's image and no king but Jesus, who tells us: Greater love has no one than this: to lay down one's life for one's friends. You are my friends if you do what I command. I no longer call you servants, because a servant does not know his master's business. Instead, I have called you friends, for everything that I learned from my Father I have made known to you ( John 15:13-15 ). ​ Conclusion ​ The other passage that sacralists willfully misinterpret is Paul's thesis statement about Christians and the Roman government. Yes, reading the Bible typologically and applying its meaning for today is essential, but we must do so according to its original setting. When Paul wrote his letter to Christians living in Rome, the empire's very heart, he addressed people who could not vote for their leaders. Although some believers, like Paul ( see Acts 22:25-27 ), had Roman citizenship, most first-century Christians did not. We moderns must be mindful not to assume the context of a democratic constitutional republic when reading the following: ​ Let everyone be subject to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God. Consequently, whoever rebels against the authority is rebelling against what God has instituted, and those who do so will bring judgment on themselves. For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong. Do you want to be free from fear of the one in authority? Then do what is right and you will be commended. For the one in authority is God's servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for rulers do not bear the sword for no reason. They are God's servants, agents of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer. Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also as a matter of conscience. This is also why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God's servants, who give their full time to governing. Give to everyone what you owe them: If you owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor ( Rom. 13:1-7 ). ​ Paul's instructions here are consistent with Jesus' teaching of "give back to Caesar," as well as the Covenant of Noah between God and all nations (cf. Gen. 9:4-6 ; see " Doctrine & Praxis ," p. 8). Respecting the government does not mean we must swear our soul-felt allegiance to it. Remember, Paul himself was accused of "defying Caesar's decrees, saying that there is another king, one called Jesus" ( Acts 17:7 ). Likewise, when the Sanhedrin tried Peter and John, they declared, "Which is right in God's eyes: to listen to you, or to him? You be the judges! As for us, we cannot help speaking about what we have seen and heard" ( Acts 4:19-20 ). Yes, this was a form of civil disobedience, which is justified when a secular government tries to suppress God's church. In contrast, the Christian bishops of the fourth century were weary of nearly 300 years of Roman persecution (esp., Nero, Domitian, and Diocletian), so they greeted Constantine's reforms with much enthusiasm. To their defense, the bishops subsequently delineated a "two swords" political philosophy that kept the church separate from the empire, unlike the former pagan regimes in which the Roman Senate deified their Caesars. However, they also developed a sacralist worldview in which military service was no longer prohibited for believers ( see " Peacemakers & Just War "), culminating in the violent Crusades (1095–1291) that, at times, had Christians going to war with other Christians. By the time former U.S. president George W. Bush (b. 1946)—an Evangelical—remarked, "This crusade [holy war], this war on terrorism, is going to take a while," Constantinian sacralism was a well-entrenched part of Christendom. This is to our shame. ​ As Christians, we know that God "makes nations great, and destroys them; he enlarges nations, and disperses them" ( Job 12:23 ). Likewise, the prophet Amos recorded God asking, "Did I not bring Israel up from Egypt, the Philistines from Caphtor and the Arameans from Kir?" ( 9:7 ). In other words, God formed the boundaries of all nations, not just Israel ( see Deut. 32:8 ). Who are we to fight amongst ourselves over who is faster, stronger, and better? One day, every man, woman, and child from every nation under heaven must bow their knee and "acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father" ( Phil. 2:10-11 ). Moreover, every nation will be erased from the map when God inaugurates the new earth, making the old one pass away ( see Rev. 21:1 ). Finally, this advice from Paul, which is consistent with his message in Romans 13, teaches us the proper way to view government: ​ I urge, then, first of all, that petitions, prayers, intercession and thanksgiving be made for all people—for kings and all those in authority, that we may live peaceful and quiet lives in all godliness and holiness ( 1 Tim. 2:1-2 ). ​ Let us "Make the Commission Great Again" by doing what Jesus commanded: "Therefore, go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" ( Matt. 28:19 ; see " Cost of Christian Discipleship "). This is the only way we can truly reach the "leavers" who chose "Chrexit" to deconstruct and abandon the church. ​ Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you have made of one blood all the peoples of the earth, and sent your blessed Son to preach peace to those who are far off and to those who are near: Grant that people everywhere may seek after you and find you; bring the nations into your fold; pour out your Spirit upon all flesh, and hasten the coming of your kingdom; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord. Amen .​ Bibliography ​ Archer, Brad. "A Biblical View of Patriotism." Unlocking the Bible (blog). June 30, 2016. https://unlockingthebible.org/2016/06/a-biblical-view-of-patriotism . Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. ​ The Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. p. 24. http://bcp2019.anglicanchurch.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/BCP2019.pdf . ​ Britannica, eds. "Edict of Milan." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edict-of-Milan . Dickson, Gary, Marshall W. Baldwin, and Thomas F. Madden. "Crusades." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades .​ ​​Dobson, Kent, ed. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Grant, Robert M. The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary 2. Ed. David Noel Freedman. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1992. p. 201. ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ Kidd, Thomas S. "Christian Nationalism vs. Christian Patriotism." Columbia, MO: The Gospel Coalition, 2020. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/christian-nationalism-patriotism . ​ Leonard, Angel. Enlightenment East and West . Albany: SUNY Press, 1994. p. 219. ​ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. ​ Mandal, U.C. Dictionary of Public Administration . New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, 2007. p. 461. ​ McCoy, Daniel. "Is Christian Nationalism Faithfulness? 4 Lessons from the Constantine Years." Franklin, TN: Renew.org. https://renew.org/christian-nationalism . Roberts, Alexander, and James Donaldson, trans. "Diognetus." Peter Kirby, edited for Early Christian Writings, 2001. http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/diognetus-roberts.html . ​ Verduin, Leonard. The Anatomy of a Hybrid: A Study in Church–State Relationships . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976. ⸻. The Reformers and Their Stepchildren . The Dissent and Nonconformity Series, no. 14. Paris, AR: Baptist Standard Bearer, 2001. ​ von Rad, Gerhard. Holy War in Ancient Israel . Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2000. pp. 18-19, 70. ​ Waldman, Peter, and Hugh Pope. "'Crusade' Reference Reinforces Fears War on Terrorism Is against Muslims." The Wall Street Journal . New York: Dow Jones & Co., 2001. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001020294332922160 . Wright, David F. "313 The Edict of Milan." Christian History 28 (Christianity Today, 1990). https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue-28/313-edict-of-milan.html . ​ Wright, N. T. How God Became King: The Forgotten Story of the Gospels . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016. Auschwitz & Biblical Studies Introduction What has Auschwitz to do with Jerusalem?—or with Cambridge, Chicago, Collegeville, Downers Grove, Grand Rapids, London, Minneapolis, Nashville, New York, Oxford, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Wheaton, or any other city that hosts a major Christian or Jewish publisher? I loosely base this question on a more ancient one by Tertullian of Carthage (c. AD 155–c. 220): "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" ( Prescription against Heretics 7 ). Auschwitz is the German name for the Polish town of Oświęcim, which began in the twelfth century and currently features a population of about 40,000. Yet, we only recall five short years (1940–1945) of its more than 700. This is because an estimated 1.5 million people died in the Auschwitz-Birkenau (Polish: Oświęcim-Brzezinka ) concentration camp during this time—90% of them were Jews. This is about 35 times the number of residents there today. Therefore, Auschwitz is a symbol of the Holocaust (Hebrew: Shoah ; H7724b ; "Destruction"), or what Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) and his National Socialists (Nazis) termed the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" (German: Endlösung der Judenfrage ). ​ Jerusalem was the undisputed center of early Christianity, which was always the most sacred place in Judaism. The disciples of Jesus evangelized most of the Mediterranean world, launching from the Jewish Christian church of Jerusalem. Most importantly, the city symbolizes where God meets us in our physical world, both in the ancient temple and in the person of Jesus. If Jerusalem proves God's faithfulness to all humankind, it follows that Auschwitz represents our most faithless rebellion against him. It is one thing for elitist Judean priests and imperialistic Roman pagans to crucify Jesus, but it is another for supposed "Christians" to destroy God's image in mass murder. Nevertheless, this article is about the good from our deep soul-searching that followed World War II. Antisemitism in the Early Church The picture at the beginning of this section features a bas-relief of soldiers carrying the temple's equipment and furniture through the streets of Rome. The most notable is the menorah ( H4501 ), the seven-branched lampstand. This bas-relief is part of the Arch of Titus, which the emperor Domitian (AD 51–96) built to honor Titus' (AD 39–81) siege of Jerusalem in AD 70, including the temple's destruction. However, this was not an antisemitic hate crime but an act of war. The persecution of Jews at Roman hands should have ended as the empire grew increasingly Christian—especially with Constantine's (c. AD 280–337) edict that legalized Christianity in AD 313. Sadly, it did not. The early church leaders between the second and fifth centuries warned against the dangers of Judaizing , which requires Gentiles to follow the Law of Moses. Albeit a legitimate concern that Paul of Tarsus addressed in his letter to the Galatians ( see 2:15-21 ), the early church fathers, however, graduated from objecting to the Jewish religion to outright hatred for the Jews as an ethnicity. For example, Justin Martyr (c. AD 100–c. 165) made religious objections in his Dialogue with Trypho : For the circumcision according to the flesh, which is from Abraham, was given for a sign; that you may be separated from other nations, and from us; and that you alone may suffer that which you now justly suffer; and that your land may be desolate, and your cities burned with fire; and that strangers may eat your fruit in your presence, and not one of you may go up to Jerusalem ( Ch. 16 ). ​ Two centuries later, John Chrysostom (AD 354–407) published a series of eight homilies titled Against the Jews (Greek: kata Ioudaiōn ; G2596 ; G2453 ). This was just one of three writings in a patristic genre called adversus Judaeos , the Latin translation for "against the Jews." The other two were attributed to Tertullian and Gregory of Nyssa (c. AD 335–c. 394). Chrusostomos , a nickname given to John meaning "golden mouth" ( G5552 ; G4750 ), preached these choice words: Jews are dogs, stiff-necked, gluttonous drunkards. They are beasts unfit for work . . . the Jews had fallen into a condition lower than the vilest animals . . . the synagogue is worse than a brothel and a drinking shop; it is a den of scoundrels, a temple of demons, the cavern of devils, an unlawful assembly of the assassins of Christ. . . . I hate the Jews because they violate the law . . . it is the duty of all Christians to hate the Jews ( Against the Jews , Hom. 1, 2:2, 6, 7; 3:1 ). Antisemitism in the Medieval Church ​ The antisemitism of the early church leaders from the second to the fourth centuries (i.e., the ante-Nicene period) heavily influenced their successors well into the sixteenth century and on into the twentieth. Even today, we refer to men such as Justin Martyr and John Chrysostom as "early church fathers" and label their theological writings as "patristic," i.e., fatherly. While this tradition honors the ante-Nicene clergy and theologians for their works on Jesus' identity, the definition of the Trinity, and the canonization of the New Testament—their antisemitism cannot be ignored. Whereas these men did well to defend the apostolic teaching of the first century into later generations, they developed a heretical doctrine called replacement theology or supersessionism . Both descriptions refer to the mistaken belief that the Christian church replaces or supersedes the Jewish people as God's chosen. In a medieval sub-genre of Christian art known as Ecclesia et Synagoga , Latin for "Church and Synagogue," two women represent the supersession of Christianity over Judaism. Ecclesia wears a crown and holds a processional cross with a chalice, alluding to the church's ordained leadership under the new covenant. At the same time, a blindfolded Synagoga clutches a broken lance symbolizing the Jews as "Christ-killers" (ironically, it was a Roman soldier who pierced Jesus with a spear [ see John 19:34 ]). In his letter to the Roman church, Paul addressed this erroneous view among the Christian Gentiles even in his own time ( see Rom. 11 ). However, rather than heeding Paul's warning; many early church leaders formed toxic relationships with the Jews. ​ However, the antisemitism of the medieval church was not limited to theological concepts. During the First Crusade (1095–1096), over five thousand Jews were murdered. About 1120, this prompted the Roman bishop Calixtus II (c. 1065–1124) to issue a charter known as sicut Judaeis (i.e., "Thus to the Jews") to forbid Christians from harming Jews and their property. Nonetheless, this document could not protect the Jews from the Christians for long. In the early Middle Ages, most European nations kept their citizens from charging interest based on a scriptural ban in Deuteronomy ( 23:19-20 ). Ironically, this command was for the Israelites not to demand interest from other Israelites but only from Gentiles. Therefore, the Jews found that their money lending and collection of interest did not contradict their scriptures. What began as an economic restriction would ironically become one of the most widespread stereotypes of Jews as greedy for money. The following two mentions of​ antisemitism in the medieval church are ones that influenced the hate crimes of Nazi Germany on Kristallnacht —the "crystal night" when SA ( Sturmabteilung , i.e., "Storm Detachment") paramilitants destroyed Jewish shops and shipped 30,000 Jews to concentration camps from November 9–10, 1938. Centuries before, the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 established canons 68 and 69 , which forced Jews to wear distinctive clothing from the Christian population and banned them from holding public office. These decrees very quickly escalated antisemitic policies throughout Europe, with Jews eventually having to wear a unique yellow or white badge of Jewish identity and their clothes. This council, of which the warlike Roman bishop Innocent III (c. 1160–1216) presided, caused so much antisemitic fear among Europeans that claims of ritualistic child murder (i.e., "blood libel") against Jews were commonplace. They also blamed their Jewish neighbors for desecrating communion wafers believed to be Christ's transubstantiated body—a perceived crime against divinity. However, all of these accusations were baseless. About 300 years later, the Christian church had an excellent opportunity to change its position on Judaism when it sought to reform many other false doctrines taught by Roman Catholic leaders for centuries. Men such as the German pastor Martin Luther (1483–1546) began the Protestant Reformation (1517–1648) at the Castle Church in Wittenberg to oppose the heresies of Vatican dogma. At first, he welcomed the Jews into his new church family. However, when Luther saw they did not want to convert to Christianity under new leadership, he despised them. Luther was nine years old when Spanish monarchs Ferdinand II (1452–1516) and Isabella I (1451–1504)—the same ones who dispatched Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) to the Americas in 1492—began to expel the Jews from Spain that same year during the Inquisition (1478–1834). The "Lutheran" church would dominate Germany, inheriting much of Luther's antisemitism. In 1543, he published On Jews and Their Lies (German: Von den Juden und ihren Lügen ). Here is one excerpt to illustrate Luther's view of the Jewish people: ​ And so, dear Christian, beware of the Jews . . . you can see how God's wrath has consigned them to the devil, who has robbed them not only of a proper understanding of the scriptures, but also of common human reason, modesty, and sense. . . . Thus, when you see a genuine Jew you may come with a good conscience cross yourself, and boldly say, "There goes the devil incarnate." From Wittenberg to Nuremberg ​ The connection between Luther and Kristallnacht is neither a literary device nor sensational rhetoric for the sake of this article. In parts 11–13 of On Jews and Their Lies , he wrote some chilling advice to German believers, foreshadowing Kristallnacht and almost every detail of the Holocaust to a T. In closing this section, consider this 1946 testimony by Julius Streicher (1885–1946)—who founded the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer (i.e., "The Stormer")—at his Nuremberg trial for genocide: ​ I did not intend to agitate or inflame but to enlighten. Antisemitic publications have existed in Germany for centuries. . . . In the book On the Jews and Their Lies , Dr. Martin Luther writes that the Jews are a serpent's brood and one should burn down their synagogues and destroy them. Dr. Martin Luther would probably sit in my place in the defendants' dock today if his book had been considered by the prosecution [i.e., the International Military Tribunal]. Reconciliation after Auschwitz ​ World War II and the Holocaust could have widened the rift between Jews and Christians well into the twentieth century. However, beauty arose from the ashes. This is not to downplay the horrors of Auschwitz and the millennia of antisemitism that led to it. God, as he is inclined to do, took what the Nazis intended for evil and turned it into good to preserve a great nation: Israel ( see Gen. 50:20 ). In 1948—three years after the Allies defeated Nazi Germany—the Jewish people transitioned from living in fear to establish a newly independent State of Israel boldly. "Holocaust guilt" inspired all Western civilization to support this country, whether culturally, financially, militarily, politically, or religiously. ​ "Holocaust guilt" also changed the course of biblical studies among Western universities. Before World War II, most of the research into the Bible and its context reflected a supersessionist bias. For example, Jesus was given Gentile labels as "cynic" or "philosopher." This is not unlike medieval Christian art, which consistently portrayed Jesus as a European king with a pale complexion. After World War II, biblical scholars realized that Jewish sources gave more context to the Old and New Testaments. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls starting in 1946—just one year after the war ended—suddenly presented a Jewish setting of the gospels that scholars once considered Hellenistic. Likewise, theologians explored the "Jewishness of Jesus" and offered a "new perspective on Paul," redefining both men as discerning leaders of their communities rather than outside critics. The most surprising phenomenon is the rise of Messianic Judaism : Torah-observant Jews who acknowledge Jesus as their Messiah. In the latter half of the twentieth century, Christians realized how Jewish commentaries like the Talmud could shed light on obscure verses and resolve apparent contradictions. They also understood how the Jewish feasts correspond with Jesus' life and teaching ( see " Calendar of the Church "). ​ In the fall of 2015, Saint Joseph's University in Philadelphia unveiled a new statue called "Ecclesia and Synagoga in Our Time" (pictured above). Francis (b. 1936), the Catholic bishop of Rome, and the Orthodox Jewish rabbi Abraham Skorka (b. 1950), a professor at Saint Joseph's University who worked with its Institute for Jewish–Catholic Relations from 2018 to 2020, attended the event. Unlike the medieval art tradition, both women have crowns and sit beside each other. They learn together, sharing the scrolls of Judaism alongside the bound scriptures of Christianity. Today, we are seeing a reversal of what biblical scholars call the "parting of ways," or the time when the early church made a clean break from its Jewish forebears ( see " Jew & Gentile: Parting Ways "). Theologians and parishioners use the historical-grammatical method to consider the history of first-century Judea and the authors' intents. Christians are discovering the Mishnah while Jews reflect on the four gospels. This is to fulfill what God told us through the prophet Zechariah: ​ In those days, ten people from all languages and nations will take firm hold of one Jew by the hem of his robe and say, "Let us go with you, because we have heard that God is with you" ( 8:23 ). Conclusion In conclusion, the juxtaposition of Auschwitz and Jerusalem serves as a poignant reminder of the extremes of human experience and the complexities of faith. Auschwitz, with its harrowing history as a site of unimaginable suffering and genocide during the Holocaust, stands as a stark symbol of humanity's capacity for cruelty and moral failure. In contrast, Jerusalem, steeped in religious significance for both Jews and Christians, represents the hope for divine redemption and the possibility of reconciliation and renewal. The question "What has Auschwitz to do with Jerusalem?" challenges us to confront the darkest aspects of human nature while also seeking meaning and redemption in the face of tragedy. While Auschwitz may represent humanity's most faithless rebellion against God, Jerusalem embodies the promise of divine grace and the potential for spiritual awakening and healing. Through deep soul-searching and reflection, we can glean valuable lessons from the atrocities of Auschwitz and the enduring faith of Jerusalem. By acknowledging the depths of human depravity and the heights of divine love and mercy, we are compelled to strive for a world where such atrocities can never happen again, and where the values of compassion, justice, and reconciliation prevail. In this way, we honor the memory of those who perished in Auschwitz and affirm the enduring significance of Jerusalem as a symbol of hope and redemption for all humanity. ​ Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you created us in your image: Grant us grace to contend fearlessly against evil and to make no peace with oppression, and help us to use our freedom rightly in the establishment of justice in our communities and among the nations, to the glory of your holy Name; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen .​ Bibliography ​ Allen, Patricia. "SJU Announces Details of Sculpture to Mark 50 Years of New Catholic–Jewish Relationship." Philadelphia: Saint Joseph's Univ., 2015. https://www.sju.edu/news-events/news/sju-announces-details-sculpture-mark-50-years-new-catholic-jewish-relationship.​ ​ Bard, Mitchell G. "Papal Bulls." Jewish Virtual Library . Chevy Chase, MD: American–Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/papal-bulls . Berenbaum, Michael. "Auschwitz." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/place/Auschwitz . Boissoneault, Lorraine. "The First Moments of Hitler's Final Solution." Smithsonian . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 2016. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/first-moments-hitlers-final-solution-180961387 . ​ The Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. p. 659. https://bcp2019.anglicanchurch.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/BCP2019.pdf . Britannica, eds. "Ninety-five Theses." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/event/Ninety-five-Theses . ⸻. "Oświęcim." https://www.britannica.com/place/Oswiecim . Cantor, Ron. "Reconciling the Antisemitism of the Church Fathers with Their Devotion to Messiah." Kesher: A Journal of Messianic Judaism 42 (Messianic Jewish Theological Institute, 2023). https://www.kesherjournal.com/article/reconciling-the-antisemitism-of-the-church-fathers-with-their-devotion-to-messiah . Chrysostom, John. "Against the Jews, Hom. 1." Roger Pearse, edited for the Tertullian Project, 2011. https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/chrysostom_adversus_judaeos_01_homily1.htm . Evans, Craig A., and Donald A. Hagner. Anti-Semitism and Early Christianity: Issues of Polemic and Faith . Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993. ​ ​"'Final Solution': Overview." Holocaust Encyclopedia . Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/final-solution-overview . ​ "Fourth Lateran Council." The Catholic Encyclopedia . Kevin Knight, edited for New Advent, 2018. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09018a.htm . Holmes, Peter, trans. Ante-Nicene Fathers 3. Eds. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1885. Kevin Knight, edited for New Advent, 2018. https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm . ​ Howard, Bernard N. "Luther's Jewish Problem." Columbia, MO: The Gospel Coalition, 2017. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/luthers-jewish-problem . ​ Kokkonen, Susanna. "The Sad Legacy of Christian Anti-Semitism." Jerusalem: International Christian Embassy, 2013. https://int.icej.org/news/commentary/sad-legacy-christian-anti-semitism . ​ Luther, Martin. On the Jews and Their Lies (pts. 11–13). Trans. Martin H. Bertram. Chestnut Hill, MA: Council of Centers on Jewish–Christian Relations, 2008. https://www.ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/primary-texts-from-the-history-of-the-relationship/luther-1543 . ​ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. ​ Marans, Noam E. "On Luther and His Lies." The Christian Century . Chicago: Christian Century Foundation, 2017. https://www.christiancentury.org/article/critical-essay/on-luther-and-lies . ​ Martyr, Justin. "The Dialogue with Trypho." Trans. Philip Schaff. Chestnut Hill: MA: Council of Centers on Jewish–Christian Relations, 2008. https://www.ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/primary-texts-from-the-history-of-the-relationship/justin . ​ Mayer, Wendy, and Pauline Allen. John Chrysostom . London: Routledge, 2000. ​ Méndez-Oliver, Ana. "Frontier Identities and Migrating Souls: Re-Conceptualizing New Religious and Cultural Imaginaries in the Iberian Worlds." New York: Columbia Univ., 2017. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e7ac/df36b05b96d82a90162e806621bb09859499.pdf . ​ Menzies, Allan, ed. Ante-Nicene Fathers 3. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1889. Harry Plantinga, edited for Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1993–2020. https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.iii.vii.html . Rabbi Skorka. "Biography." London: Lucky Sparky, 2018. https://www.rabbiskorka.com/about-rabbi-abraham-skorka . "The Reformation." History Channel. New York: A&E Television Networks, 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/religion/reformation . Rowe, Nina. The Jew, the Cathedral and the Medieval City: Synagoga and Ecclesia in the Thirteenth Century . New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2011.​ Ryan, Edward A. "Spanish Inquisition." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Spanish-Inquisition . Schroeder, H. J., trans. "Fourth Lateran Council, 'Canons Concerning Jews.'" Chestnut Hill: MA: Council of Centers on Jewish–Christian Relations, 2008. https://www.ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/primary-texts-from-the-history-of-the-relationship/lateran4 . Schultheis, Emily. "In the Shadow of Auschwitz, A Town Seeks to Tell Its Own Story." Washington, DC: Institute of Current World Affairs, 2020. https://www.icwa.org/town-near-auschwitz-tells-its-story . Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . Second ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020. "Synagoga and Ecclesia in Our Time." Philadelphia: Institute for Jewish–Catholic Relations, Saint Joseph's Univ., 2015. https://www.sju.edu/college-arts-and-sciences/ijcr/synagoga-ecclesia#sju-dedicates-its-nostra-aetate-sculpture-blessed-by-pope-francis-two-days-later . Wright, David F. "313 The Edict of Milan." Christian History 28 (Christianity Today International, 1990). https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue-28/313-edict-of-milan.html . View All Other Pages (22) All Posts | First Century Christian Faith (FCCF) | Paleo-Orthodoxy Courtesy of Thinking Man Films All Posts on First Century Christian Faith All Posts Epistle 1/21 New Testament Biographies Doctrine & Ministry Exegesis & Discipleship Theology & Scholarship An Epilogue to "The Benedict Option": A Distributist Strategy Attachment Styles in Christian Context First-Century Approach to Parenting Food & Feasts of Ancient Judea Confessions of Faith | First Century Christian Faith (FCCF) Confessions of Faith Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Apostles' Creed c. AD 150 ​ I believe in God, the Father Almighty, creator of heaven and earth. I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried; he descended to the dead. On the third day, he rose again; he ascended into heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father, and will come again to judge the living and the dead. ​ I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen . ​ Nicene Creed AD 325 & 381 We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen. ​ We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one Being with the Father; through him, all things were made. For us and for our salvation, he came down from heaven, was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the virgin Mary, and became truly human. For our sake, he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day, he rose again in accordance with the scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified, who has spoken through the prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen . ​ Definition of Chalcedon AD 451 ​ Following the holy fathers, we teach with one voice that the Son of God and our Lord Jesus Christ is to be confessed as one and the same person, that he is perfect in Godhead and perfect in manhood, truly God and truly man, of a reasonable soul and body consisting of one substance with the Father as regards his Godhead, and at the same time of one substance with us as regards his manhood, like us in all respects, apart from sin. ​ Begotten of His Father before the ages as regards his Godhead, but in these last days born for us and for our salvation of the virgin Mary, the God-bearer. This one and the same Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, must be confessed to be in two natures, without confusion, without changes, without division, not as parted or separated into two persons, but one and the same Son and only-begotten God the Word, our Lord Jesus Christ. Even as the prophets from earliest times spoke of him, and our Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us, and the creed of the fathers has handed down to us. Amen . ​ Confession of First-Century Faith AD 2019 For us, there is but one God, the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live, and there is one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and lived. We shall love the Lord our God with all our hearts, with all our souls, with all our minds, and with all our strength. We shall love our neighbors as ourselves. These commandments that God gives us today shall be on our hearts. We shall teach them to our children and talk about them at home, in public, and when we lie down and get up. We shall bind them as symbols in our actions and thoughts, and they shall be the rule of our homes. ​​ For the gospel that Paul received, he passed on to us as of first importance: Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures, was buried, and was raised on the third day. He appeared to Peter and then to the twelve. Afterward, Jesus appeared to more than 500 brothers and sisters simultaneously. Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. Last of all, Christ appeared to Paul. Jesus appeared in the flesh, was vindicated by the Holy Spirit, seen by angels, preached among the nations, believed in the world, and taken up in glory. ​ Because of Jesus, we are children of God by faith. We are baptized into Christ, having clothed ourselves with him. There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free; nor is there male and female, for all of us are one in Christ Jesus. Since we belong to him, we are Abraham's offspring, children of the promise. There is one body and one Spirit, just as God called us in one hope. There is one Lord, one faith, one baptism; o ne God and Father of all, who is over all and through all and in all. We are branches grafted into the root of Israel's tree. We stand by faith in humility, trembling in awe of G od's salvation. Whenev er we eat thi s bread and drink this cup, we proclaim the Lor d's death and resurrectio n until he comes. Amen . ​​ * Based on 1 Cor. 8:6 ; Mark 12:29-31 (cf. Deut. 6:4-5 ; Lev. 19:18 ); 1 Cor. 15:3-8 ; 1 Tim. 3:16 ; Gal. 3:28-29 ; Rom. 9:8 ; Eph. 4:4-6 ; R om. 11:11-20 ; 1 Cor. 11:26 .​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Bibliog raphy ​​ Bellinger, W. H., Jr., and Todd D. Still, eds. NRSV Baylor Annotated Study Bible . Waco, TX: Baylor Univ. Press, 2019. pp. 1431, 1261, 1439, 1511, 1474, 1435. ​ Coogan, Michael D., Marc D. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, eds. NRSV New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha . Fifth ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2018. p. 2105. Costa, Tony. Early Christian Creeds & Hymns—What the Earliest Christians Believed in Word and Song: An Exegetical and Theological Study . Studies in the Ancient Church. Peterborough, ON: H&E Publishing, 2021. ​ ​ The Transitional Book of Doctrines and Discipline . Fredericksburg, VA: Global Metho dist Church, 2024. pp. 8–9. https://globalmethodist.org/what-we-believe . ​ ​ Inspirational Movies | First Century Christian Faith (FCCF) Recommended Inspirational Movies (each linked to IMDb) Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com View All

Courtesy of Thinking Man Films All Posts on First Century Christian Faith All Posts Epistle 1/21 New Testament Biographies Doctrine & Ministry Exegesis & Discipleship Theology & Scholarship An Epilogue to "The Benedict Option": A Distributist Strategy Attachment Styles in Christian Context First-Century Approach to Parenting Food & Feasts of Ancient Judea

Confessions of Faith Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Apostles' Creed c. AD 150 ​ I believe in God, the Father Almighty, creator of heaven and earth. I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried; he descended to the dead. On the third day, he rose again; he ascended into heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father, and will come again to judge the living and the dead. ​ I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen . ​ Nicene Creed AD 325 & 381 We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen. ​ We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one Being with the Father; through him, all things were made. For us and for our salvation, he came down from heaven, was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the virgin Mary, and became truly human. For our sake, he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day, he rose again in accordance with the scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified, who has spoken through the prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen . ​ Definition of Chalcedon AD 451 ​ Following the holy fathers, we teach with one voice that the Son of God and our Lord Jesus Christ is to be confessed as one and the same person, that he is perfect in Godhead and perfect in manhood, truly God and truly man, of a reasonable soul and body consisting of one substance with the Father as regards his Godhead, and at the same time of one substance with us as regards his manhood, like us in all respects, apart from sin. ​ Begotten of His Father before the ages as regards his Godhead, but in these last days born for us and for our salvation of the virgin Mary, the God-bearer. This one and the same Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, must be confessed to be in two natures, without confusion, without changes, without division, not as parted or separated into two persons, but one and the same Son and only-begotten God the Word, our Lord Jesus Christ. Even as the prophets from earliest times spoke of him, and our Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us, and the creed of the fathers has handed down to us. Amen . ​ Confession of First-Century Faith AD 2019 For us, there is but one God, the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live, and there is one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and lived. We shall love the Lord our God with all our hearts, with all our souls, with all our minds, and with all our strength. We shall love our neighbors as ourselves. These commandments that God gives us today shall be on our hearts. We shall teach them to our children and talk about them at home, in public, and when we lie down and get up. We shall bind them as symbols in our actions and thoughts, and they shall be the rule of our homes. ​​ For the gospel that Paul received, he passed on to us as of first importance: Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures, was buried, and was raised on the third day. He appeared to Peter and then to the twelve. Afterward, Jesus appeared to more than 500 brothers and sisters simultaneously. Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. Last of all, Christ appeared to Paul. Jesus appeared in the flesh, was vindicated by the Holy Spirit, seen by angels, preached among the nations, believed in the world, and taken up in glory. ​ Because of Jesus, we are children of God by faith. We are baptized into Christ, having clothed ourselves with him. There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free; nor is there male and female, for all of us are one in Christ Jesus. Since we belong to him, we are Abraham's offspring, children of the promise. There is one body and one Spirit, just as God called us in one hope. There is one Lord, one faith, one baptism; o ne God and Father of all, who is over all and through all and in all. We are branches grafted into the root of Israel's tree. We stand by faith in humility, trembling in awe of G od's salvation. Whenev er we eat thi s bread and drink this cup, we proclaim the Lor d's death and resurrectio n until he comes. Amen . ​​ * Based on 1 Cor. 8:6 ; Mark 12:29-31 (cf. Deut. 6:4-5 ; Lev. 19:18 ); 1 Cor. 15:3-8 ; 1 Tim. 3:16 ; Gal. 3:28-29 ; Rom. 9:8 ; Eph. 4:4-6 ; R om. 11:11-20 ; 1 Cor. 11:26 .​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Bibliog raphy ​​ Bellinger, W. H., Jr., and Todd D. Still, eds. NRSV Baylor Annotated Study Bible . Waco, TX: Baylor Univ. Press, 2019. pp. 1431, 1261, 1439, 1511, 1474, 1435. ​ Coogan, Michael D., Marc D. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, eds. NRSV New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha . Fifth ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2018. p. 2105. Costa, Tony. Early Christian Creeds & Hymns—What the Earliest Christians Believed in Word and Song: An Exegetical and Theological Study . Studies in the Ancient Church. Peterborough, ON: H&E Publishing, 2021. ​ ​ The Transitional Book of Doctrines and Discipline . Fredericksburg, VA: Global Metho dist Church, 2024. pp. 8–9. https://globalmethodist.org/what-we-believe . ​ ​