1 Timothy 2 and Xenophon's Ephesiaca
- James Collazo
- 1 day ago
- 10 min read
Introduction
Paul begins this section by addressing the appearance of Christian women in worship: "I also want the women to dress modestly, with decency and propriety, adorning themselves, not with elaborate hairstyles or gold or pearls or expensive clothes, but with good deeds, appropriate for women who profess to worship God" (1 Tim. 2:9–10). Contemporary readers often assume Paul is establishing a permanent dress code for Christian women. Yet the language he uses suggests he is addressing something more specific than clothing alone. Paul was writing to a church in Ephesus, not to a church in the abstract. Written in the first century, the Ephesiaca by the Greek novelist Xenophon of Ephesus offers a window into the culture and religious atmosphere of Ephesus during the same general period in which Paul ministered there. Its descriptions of Artemis worship and Ephesian society illuminate several features of 1 Timothy 2 that contemporary Western readers might otherwise overlook.
Adornment and Identity
One of the clearest parallels appears in Paul's prohibition against "elaborate hairstyles." The Greek noun plegma (G4117) is rare in ancient literature, yet Xenophon uses the same root when describing Anthia, the novel's heroine. He writes that her hair was "mostly loose, only a little of it braided" (peplegmenē, G4120), emphasizing her striking beauty as she appears before the people of Ephesus. Shortly afterward, the crowds begin honoring her as though she were Artemis herself. Paul also warns against "expensive clothes." The adjective polutelēs (G4185), translated as "expensive," appears repeatedly in the Ephesiaca to describe Anthia's luxurious garments and her wealthy appearance. In both texts, elaborate dress communicates more than personal fashion. It signals social status, public identity, and religious association.
Another parallel appears in verse 10. Paul encourages women to adorn themselves with good deeds, "appropriate for women who profess to worship God." The expression translated "worship God" is the Greek noun theosebeia (G2317). In Ephesian society, related terminology was associated with devotion to Artemis. Paul redirects that language toward the worship of the one true God, replacing pagan expressions of piety with genuine Christian devotion. These parallels do not suggest that Paul was drawing from the Ephesiaca. Rather, they show that he wrote to believers living in a culture whose language, customs, and values were shaped by Artemis. His concern was not merely hairstyles or jewelry but the transformation of a people whose understanding of worship had been formed by pagan religion. Instead of seeking honor through outward appearance, Christian women were to distinguish themselves by lives marked by good works. Their identity would no longer be defined by the values of Ephesian society but by their devotion to Christ.
Learning Before Leading
After addressing outward appearance, Paul turns to the conduct of women in the assembled church: "A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to assume authority over a man; she must be quiet" (1 Tim. 2:11–12). The first command is often overlooked. Before addressing teaching, Paul instructs women to learn. This is significant because his concern throughout the letter is the preservation of sound doctrine. Timothy had been left in Ephesus to stop false teachers who were promoting "myths and endless genealogies" (1 Tim. 1:3–4a). Those who had recently come to faith needed instruction in apostolic teaching before assuming positions of influence in the church.
The religious environment of Ephesus helps explain why Paul gives this instruction. Women played prominent roles in the cult of Artemis, where priestesses and other female officials wielded religious and civic influence. Inscriptions from Ephesus attest to titles such as priestess (hiereia), adorner (kosmēteira), president (prutanis), and high priestess of Asia (archiereia Asias). These positions carried prestige and authority within Ephesian society. Christian leadership, however, followed a different pattern. Those who had once enjoyed honor through the worship of Artemis were now called to become disciples of Christ and to receive instruction before teaching others. Their authority would no longer rest on religious status but on faithfulness to the gospel.
Paul's statement, "I do not permit a woman to teach or to assume authority over a man," contains one of the New Testament's most debated Greek verbs, authenteō (G831). Because the word appears only here in the New Testament, its precise nuance has long been debated. The New International Version translates it as "assume authority," while other translations render it "exercise authority." Outside the New Testament, authenteō appears in a variety of Greek sources with nuances related to the exercise of authority, though its precise force varies with context. Modern lexical studies define authenteō as "to assume or exercise a position of authority," though its precise force depends on context. The immediate context supports this reading. Paul is not discussing the qualifications of mature church leaders but is addressing a congregation troubled by false teaching. His concern is that those not yet grounded in sound doctrine should not teach or seize positions of authority within the church. The emphasis is on preserving apostolic teaching and maintaining orderly worship, not on establishing social privilege. The progression of Paul's argument is straightforward. Those who are learning should become established in the faith before assuming responsibility for teaching others. This emphasis naturally anticipates Paul's qualifications for overseers and deacons in the next chapter (1 Tim. 3:1–13), where spiritual maturity and doctrinal faithfulness are essential to leadership. That principle holds throughout the New Testament and still applies to the church today.
This emphasis on learning was consistent with Jesus' own ministry. Rather than excluding women from discipleship, Jesus welcomed them as learners. Mary of Bethany, for example, sat at the Lord's feet—a posture associated with receiving formal instruction from a rabbi (Luke 10:39). Likewise, Paul himself ministered alongside numerous faithful women, including Priscilla, Phoebe, Euodia, and Syntyche, recognizing their valuable service in advancing the gospel (Rom. 16:1–5; Phil. 4:2–3). Paul's instruction in 1 Timothy does not diminish the importance of women in the church but underscores that all believers must first be grounded in sound doctrine before assuming responsibility for teaching others.
Genesis and the Ephesiaca
Paul supports his instruction by citing Genesis: "For Adam was formed first, then Eve. And Adam was not the one deceived; it was the woman who was deceived and became a sinner" (1 Tim. 2:13–14). At first glance, these verses appear to interrupt Paul's discussion of teaching and authority. In fact, they explain why he insists that Christian doctrine be grounded in Scripture rather than in the religious ideas circulating throughout Ephesus. Throughout the letter, Paul repeatedly warns Timothy about false teachers who promote "myths" instead of the truth of the gospel (1 Tim. 1:3–7; 4:7). Therefore, when defending his instruction, Paul does not appeal to local custom or civic tradition. He appeals to Genesis.
The creation account provides the authoritative foundation for understanding humanity, sin, and God's design. Whatever stories the Ephesian believers had heard before coming to Christ, Scripture—not mythology—would define their worldview. This emphasis becomes clearer when read alongside Xenophon's Ephesiaca. Xenophon's novel depicts a culture deeply immersed in Artemis worship, where religious traditions and popular beliefs shaped everyday life. Some scholars argue that myths associated with Artemis and the broader pagan world reflected assumptions that contrasted with the biblical creation narrative, elevating female figures and presenting alternative accounts of authority and origins. Even if not every element of that reconstruction can be demonstrated with certainty, Paul answers false teaching by directing his readers back to Scripture.
Paul's reference to Eve's deception should also be read in the broader context of his theology. He does not suggest that women are inherently more susceptible to deception than men. Elsewhere, he warns entire congregations—men and women alike—against being deceived by false teaching (2 Cor. 11:3; Eph. 5:6). Likewise, in Romans 5, Paul identifies Adam as the representative through whom sin entered the world. In that context, Eve serves as an illustration in Paul's immediate argument about deception and the importance of sound doctrine. Paul's answer to false teaching was not another tradition but Scripture itself. His concern was not merely to settle a debate about men and women but to establish the authority of Scripture over every competing worldview.
Trust Over Superstition
Paul concludes this difficult passage with one of the New Testament's most debated statements: "But she will be saved through childbearing—if they continue in faith, love, and holiness with propriety" (1 Tim. 2:15). Read apart from its historical setting, the verse can be perplexing. Paul consistently teaches that salvation is by grace through faith, not by works (Eph. 2:8–9). He cannot mean that a woman earns eternal salvation by giving birth. The immediate context suggests that Paul may be addressing a concern especially relevant to the Ephesian church. Throughout the ancient Mediterranean, Artemis was widely revered as a protector of women during pregnancy and childbirth. In Ephesus, this belief was especially prominent. Women looked to the goddess for safety in labor, believing she held power over life and death during childbirth. Those who abandoned her worship may well have wondered whether they had forfeited her protection.
The Ephesiaca reflects this cultural world. Artemis is presented not merely as a distant deity but as an active guardian whose favor shapes the lives of her devotees. The novel assumes a society in which loyalty to the goddess is expected, and her influence permeates daily life. These assumptions help explain why Paul closes with reassurance rather than another prohibition. Instead of looking to Artemis, Christian women were to place their confidence in God. The one who created life would also sustain them through childbirth. Their security did not depend upon the favor of a pagan goddess, but upon the faithfulness of the Lord they now served. Paul's final qualification confirms this emphasis. He adds, "if they continue in faith, love, and holiness with propriety." These virtues have been woven throughout the letter and characterize genuine discipleship. The focus is not on childbirth itself but on perseverance in the Christian life. Faith replaces superstition, holiness replaces pagan devotion, and steadfast trust replaces fear. When read against the backdrop of first-century Ephesus, 1 Timothy 2:15 is not an isolated statement about childbirth. It is the fitting conclusion to Paul's broader argument. Throughout this passage, he calls believers to abandon the values, fears, and religious assumptions of Artemis worship and embrace a gospel-shaped life. Christian women no longer needed to seek the protection of the city's patron goddess. Their lives, families, and future rested in the hands of Christ.
Reading Paul in Context
1 Timothy 2:9–15 has long been among the New Testament's most discussed passages. While faithful Christians have reached different conclusions about its application, Paul's original audience did not read his letter in a vacuum. They lived in Ephesus, a city dominated by the worship of Artemis and shaped by customs, language, and beliefs unfamiliar to many contemporary readers. The Ephesiaca offers a valuable glimpse into that world. Its depictions of braided hairstyles, luxurious clothing, public displays of beauty, devotion to Artemis, and the religious assumptions of Ephesian society reveal striking points of contact with Paul's instructions to Timothy. These parallels do not replace the biblical text, but they illuminate the cultural setting in which it was written. Historical context does not determine the meaning of Scripture, but it often clarifies how the original audience would have understood it.
When read against the historical background of Ephesus, Paul's argument follows a clear progression. He calls Christian women to reject outward displays associated with status and pagan piety, to become learners grounded in apostolic doctrine, to reject myths in favor of the biblical creation account, and to place their confidence in Christ rather than in Artemis—even in matters as deeply personal as childbirth. Understanding the historical setting does not eliminate every interpretive question, nor does it resolve every theological debate surrounding this passage. It does, however, remind us of an important principle of biblical interpretation: Scripture was written to real people living in real places. The clearer our understanding of their world, the clearer we can understand the inspired message God gave through them. For readers of 1 Timothy 2:9–15, the Ephesiaca provides another piece of that historical puzzle. It allows us to hear Paul's words as the Ephesian church may have first heard them—spoken into a city where the gospel confronted one of the ancient world's most influential religious cultures and called its people to leave behind the worship of Artemis for wholehearted devotion to Jesus Christ.
Bibliography
Primary Source
Xenophon. Ephesiaca. Translated by Graham Anderson. In Collected Ancient Greek Novels, edited by B. P. Reardon, 125–69. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
Commentaries
Fee, Gordon D. 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus. New International Biblical Commentary. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1988.
Knight III, George W. The Pastoral Epistles: A Commentary on the Greek Text. New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992.
Köstenberger, Andreas J., Thomas R. Schreiner, and H. Scott Baldwin, eds. Women in the Church: An Interpretation and Application of 1 Timothy 2:9–15. 3rd ed. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2016.
Towner, Philip H. The Letters to Timothy and Titus. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006.
Monographs
Arnold, Clinton E. Ephesians: Power and Magic; The Concept of Power in Ephesians in Light of Its Historical Setting. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 63. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Baugh, S. M. Women and Worship at Ephesus: A Study of 1 Timothy 2:8–15 in Light of the Religious Customs of the Greco-Roman World. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2009.
Friesen, Steven J. Twice Neokoros: Ephesus, Asia, and the Cult of the Flavian Imperial Family. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 116. Leiden: Brill, 1993.
Hoag, Gary G. Wealth in Ancient Ephesus and the First Letter to Timothy: Fresh Insights from Ephesiaca by Xenophon of Ephesus. Bulletin for Biblical Research Supplements 11. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2015.
Keener, Craig S. Paul, Women & Wives: Marriage and Women's Ministry in the Letters of Paul. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1992.
Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard Jr. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. 3rd ed. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2017.
Lea, Thomas D., and David Alan Black. About the New Testament: Its Background and Message. 2nd ed. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2003.
Osborne, Grant R. The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2006.
Oster, Richard E. "Ephesus as a Religious Center under the Principate, I. Paganism Before Constantine." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.18.3, edited by Wolfgang Haase, 1661–1728. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1990.
Rogers, Guy MacLean. The Sacred Identity of Ephesos: Foundation Myths of a Roman City. London: Routledge, 1991.
Stein, Robert H. A Basic Guide to Interpreting the Bible: Playing by the Rules. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011.
Witherington, Ben, III. Women in the Earliest Churches. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 59. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Journal Articles
Hoag, Gary G. "Demystifying Gender Issues in 1 Timothy 2:9–15, with Help from Artemis."↗ Evangelical Review of Theology 44, no. 3 (2020): 242–49. PDF.
Stiles, Eliza. "Paul's Concern for Ephesus: A Survey of 1 Timothy 2:8–15."↗ Priscilla Papers 36, no. 4 (2022): 18–24. PDF.
Tilg, Stefan. "A Textual Note on Xenophon of Ephesus 3.9.4."↗ Classical Quarterly 56, no. 2 (2006): 646–48.
Reference Works
Bauer, Walter, Frederick W. Danker, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
Elwell, Walter A., and Philip W. Comfort, eds. Tyndale Bible Dictionary. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 2001.
Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott, Henry Stuart Jones, and Roderick McKenzie. A Greek-English Lexicon. 9th ed. with revised supplement. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
Dissertations
Wiggers, Rick L. "Artemis and Syncretism in Ephesus: A Perspective on 1 Timothy 2:8–15."↗ PhD diss., Regent University, 2025.
