Jew & Gentile: Parting Ways

Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV

Introduction

Judaism and Christianity are two separate world religions today, but they were not always so. Christianity began as a Jewish reform movement, and all its first followers were Jews who recognized Jesus as the Messiah. As the movement spread to Gentiles across the Roman Empire, it developed distinct beliefs and practices. Over time, this sometimes caused tension and conflict with the Jewish communities from which it came. How did this small Jewish movement grow into a predominantly Gentile religion while clashing with its roots?

According to an early Christian tradition preserved by the fourth-century historian Eusebius, one of the decisive turning points in the separation between Judaism and Christianity came during the First Judeo–Roman War (AD 66–70). Eusebius records that the Jerusalem church fled to the Jordan Valley before the city's destruction. Eusebius wrote: "The people of the church in Jerusalem had been commanded by a revelation, given to approved men there before the war, to leave the city and dwell in a certain town of Perea called Pella. When those who believed in Christ came from Jerusalem, it was as if the royal city of the Jews and the whole land of Judea were there" (Hist. eccl. 3.5).

This warning aligns with the Olivet Discourse, in which Jesus cautions, "So when you see standing in the holy place 'the abomination that causes desolation,' spoken of through the prophet Daniel [Dan. 9:27]—let the reader understand—then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains" (Matt. 24:15–16). Today, many Christians interpret this passage primarily as a future event, though it also referred to the events surrounding Jerusalem's destruction in AD 70. The sack of Jerusalem was a national catastrophe that permanently reshaped Jewish history.

When the Roman general Titus captured Jerusalem, his soldiers burned it and looted its treasures. Jews still visit what remains of the Western Wall to mourn the loss of the temple, while the Arch of Titus in Rome commemorates this victory. A bas-relief on the arch, built eleven years later in AD 81, depicts Roman soldiers plundering the temple and carrying away its menorah. Many preterist interpreters understand Jesus' warning to have found an initial fulfillment in Titus' destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (Lev. 24:9).

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No Question of Jewish Identity

As a demonym, the basic definition of a Jew is "a person from the land of Judah or Judea." As an ethnonym, a Jew is someone who belongs to the covenant people of Israel, with circumcision serving as a mark of citizenship (Gen. 17). Originally, Israel had twelve tribes, each named for one of Jacob's sons, with Judah being one of them (Gen. 49:28 ff.). God had given Judah's father Jacob the name Israel (H3478), "one who strives for God" (Gen. 32:28).

After the reign of King Solomon, his successors divided Israel into the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judea (1 Kings 12:1–24; 2 Chron. 10). Around 722 BC, Assyria conquered Israel and exiled its ten tribes (2 Kings 17:5–23), leaving only the two tribes from Judah. Jesus traced his Jewish heritage through the line of Judah (Matt. 1:2–3; Luke 3:33; Heb. 7:14). Likewise, the apostle Paul defended his Jewish heritage when he wrote, "[I was] circumcised on the eighth day, of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews; in regard to the law, a Pharisee" (Phil. 3:5).

Jesus' twelve apostles were all Jewish, representing the twelve tribes of a fully restored Israel (Matt. 19:28). When the apostle Peter addressed Jewish festival pilgrims at Pentecost, he declared, "Therefore let all Israel be assured of this: God has made this Jesus, whom you crucified, both Lord and Messiah" (Acts 2:36). About three thousand Jews responded, were baptized, and devoted their lives to Jesus as their national Messiah (Acts 2:37–42). Luke, the author of the Acts of the Apostles, described these new Jewish believers in Jesus: "Every day they continued to meet together in the temple courts. They broke bread in their homes and ate together with glad and sincere hearts" (Acts 2:46).

The first Christians continued to worship in the Jewish temple, demonstrating that the earliest followers of Jesus did not view themselves as replacing Israel. When Paul visited Jerusalem one last time, he went to the temple, completed the purification rites of his nazirite vow, and sacrificed a turtledove or pigeon, a lamb, and a ram according to the Law of Moses (Acts 18:18, 21:26; cf. Num. 6:1–21). He affirmed his faithful observance of Judaism, stating, "I have done nothing wrong against the Jewish law or against the temple or against Caesar" (Acts 25:8).​

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Parting Ways: Jerusalem to Jamnia

Jesus' brother James led the Council of Jerusalem around AD 50 (Acts 15:1–35). Paul's first missionary journey, which took place between AD 46 and 48, achieved significant success but created tension between his Gentile converts and the Jewish-dominated church in Jerusalem. Jewish Christians insisted that Gentiles undergo circumcision, viewing the Jesus movement as an extension of Israel. At the council, James heard both sides and ruled: "It is my judgment, therefore, that we should not make it difficult for the Gentiles who are turning to God. Instead, we should write to them, telling them to abstain from food polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from the meat of strangled animals and from blood" (Acts 15:19–20).

Many scholars see James' ruling as reflecting principles associated with the Covenant of Noah and the holiness legislation concerning resident foreigners in the Law of Moses (cf. Gen. 9:1–17; Lev. 17–18). The Jewish elders accepted this approach because the Covenant of Noah served as a precursor to the Law of Moses, ensuring no contradiction. The council treated Christian Gentiles as foreigners among Jews, affirming that both groups had equal access to Jesus. One way to understand James' decision is to see him as treating Gentile believers not as proselytes (Hebrew: gerim, H1616) but rather as resident foreigners (Hebrew: zarim, H2114; or nochrim, H5237) living among Israel (cf. Num. 15:15–16; 2 Chron. 6:32). This solution provided a fair hearing for both Jewish Christians, who followed the Law of Moses, and Gentile converts from many nations. James' wisdom and patience could have prevented a separation between Jewish and Gentile expressions of Christianity; nevertheless, the resolution ultimately proved temporary.

John's gospel records three occasions when synagogue leaders expelled Jewish followers of Jesus (John 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). However, these passages do not necessarily indicate that John wrote between AD 70 and 100, as some scholars suggest. During Jesus' ministry, synagogue leaders threatened to excommunicate his disciples, but these were localized threats rather than a widespread ban across Galilee and Judea. Jesus distinguished this when he warned, "They will put you out of the synagogue; in fact, the time is coming when anyone who kills you will think they are offering a service to God" (John 16:2). Some scholars argue that John wrote his gospel between AD 64 and 70, as he did not refer to the destruction of Jerusalem.

By contrast, when John wrote Revelation around AD 90, he described the absence of a temple (Rev. 21:22) and reported that synagogue leaders were expelling Christians (cf. Rev. 2:9; 3:9; see "Revelation: Then, Now & Not Yet"). Tensions between Jews and Christians reached a breaking point after AD 70 and increased when the emperor Vespasian imposed the fiscus Judaicus, or "Jewish tax." This tax required Jews to contribute to the Jupiter Capitolinus temple in Rome rather than the destroyed Jerusalem temple. The emperor Nerva reformed the tax in AD 96, officially recognizing Judaism and Christianity as separate religions. Although Christians no longer had to pay the fiscus Judaicus, the Roman Empire continued to persecute the church.

In AD 68, the pacifist rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai faked his death and instructed his disciples to carry him out of besieged Jerusalem in a casket. He then requested an audience with the Roman general Vespasian, whom he had prophesied would become emperor. When Vespasian ascended the throne, he granted ben Zakkai's request to establish a Pharisee academy at the coastal town of Jamnia (Hebrew: Yavneh, H2996). The Sanhedrin, the Jewish ruling council, relocated there from Jerusalem. Yochanan ben Zakkai had studied under the prominent rabbi Gamaliel, who also taught Paul (Acts 5:34; 22:3). Rabbinic Judaism today traces its lineage to the Pharisee sect, particularly to ben Zakkai's reforms.

Following the establishment of the rabbinic academy at Jamnia, Jewish leaders gradually reshaped Judaism in the wake of the destruction of the temple. By around AD 90, rabbinic discussions at Jamnia increasingly distinguished Jewish belief and practice from the emerging Christian movement. Rabbinic authorities increasingly preferred the Hebrew text over the Septuagint, which remained the principal Old Testament of the early church. Rabbinic Judaism increasingly emphasized the Hebrew Scriptures in ways that distinguished Jewish interpretation from emerging Christian readings.

Around AD 90, rabbinic circles associated with Jamnia increasingly incorporated the Birkat ha-Minim (H1293 / H4327; "Blessing for the Heretics") into Jewish liturgy. Versions of the Birkat ha-Minim remain in many Jewish traditions, though its wording has evolved over the centuries. It reads: "For the apostates, let there be no hope . . . Let the nozerim [lit. 'Nazarenes,' i.e., believers in Jesus of Nazareth; cf. Acts 24:5] and the minim [i.e., Jewish heretics] be destroyed in a moment. And let them be blotted out of the Book of Life and not be inscribed together with the righteous. Blessed are you, LORD, who humbles the arrogant."

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The Parting Completed

The Second Judeo–Roman War (AD 132–135) completed the separation between Judaism and Christianity that had been developing since the first century. A messianic leader, Simon bar Kochba, led Jewish insurgents in an attempt to overthrow Roman rule in Judea. Rabbi Akiva famously endorsed bar Kochba as Messiah. He established an independent Jewish state for two years but was ultimately defeated by the Romans, culminating in the fall of Bethar in AD 135. Jewish Christians did not support bar Kochba because he claimed to be the Messiah, which conflicted with their belief in Jesus. As Jesus had warned, "For many will come in my name, claiming, 'I am the Messiah,' and will deceive many. You will hear of wars and rumors of wars, but do not be alarmed. Such things must happen, but the end is still to come" (Matt. 24:5–6). Simon bar Kochba stands among the most notable of these false messiahs.

Rabbinic Judaism rejected Jesus as Messiah and developed along theological lines distinct from Christianity, emphasizing Torah, covenant faithfulness, and the coming of a future Messiah rather than Jesus of Nazareth. The Romans dispersed the Jewish population across their empire and prohibited their return to Judea under penalty of death. Over time, Christianity, as it became predominantly Gentile, sometimes persecuted Jewish communities, culminating in catastrophic events such as the Holocaust (Hebrew: Shoah, H7724b) from 1939 to 1945 (see "Auschwitz & Biblical Studies"). It remains essential for Christians to recognize that the church was born within Judaism and to understand the historical circumstances that gradually separated the two communities.

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Bibliography

Primary Sources

Eusebius. "Church History." Translated by Arthur Cushman McGiffert. In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 2, vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1890.

Monographs

Boyarin, Daniel. Border Lines: The Partition of Judaeo-Christianity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004.

Cohen, Shaye J. D. "The Ways That Parted: Jews, Christians, and Jewish-Christians, ca. 100–150 CE."↗ In Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70–132 CE. Leiden: Brill, 2017.

Dunn, James D. G. The Partings of the Ways: Between Christianity and Judaism and Their Significance for the Character of Christianity. 2nd ed. London: SCM Press, 2006.

Fredriksen, Paula. When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018.

Heemstra, Marius. The Fiscus Judaicus and the Parting of the Ways. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament II/277. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010.

Kaiser, Walter C., Jr. Jewish Christianity: Why Believing Jews and Gentiles Parted Ways in the Early Church. Silverton, OR: Lampion House, 2017.

McDonald, Lee Martin. The Biblical Canon: Its Origin, Transmission, and Authority. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017.

Tabor, James D. Paul and Jesus: How the Apostle Transformed Christianity. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012.

Edited Volumes

Baron, Lori, Jill Hicks-Keeton, and Matthew Thiessen, eds. The Ways That Often Parted: Essays in Honor of Joel Marcus. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2018.

Dunn, James D. G., ed. Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways AD 70 to 135.↗ Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 66. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992.

Reference Works

Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books. San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006.

Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014.

Galli, Mark, and Ted Olsen, eds. 131 Christians Everyone Should Know. Brentwood, TN: Holman Reference, 2000.

Johnson, Luke Timothy. The Acts of the Apostles. Vol. 5 of Sacra Pagina. Edited by Daniel J. Harrington. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 1992.

Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016.

Journal Articles

Kim, Doosuk. "The Parting of the Way: A Survey of the Relationship Between Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries CE."↗ Themelios 46, no. 1 (2021).

Online Resources

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Bard, Mitchell G., ed. "Strangers and Gentiles."↗ Jewish Virtual Library.

Bard, Mitchell G., ed. "Yochanan ben Zakkai."↗ Jewish Virtual Library.

Cohen, Shaye J. D. "The Fiscus Judaicus and the Parting of the Ways."↗ Biblical Archaeology Society. October 10, 2012.

Eden, Ami, ed. "Yochanan ben Zakkai."↗ My Jewish Learning.

Everts, Janet Meyer. "The Apostle Paul and His Times: Christian History Timeline."↗ Christian History 47 (1995).

Lizorkin-Eyzenberg, Eli. "Twelve New Leaders for Twelve Old Tribes."↗ Jewish Studies (blog). Israel Institute of Biblical Studies. October 14, 2014.

Shirokov, Peter, and Eli Lizorkin-Eyzenberg. "Council of Jamnia and Old Testament Canon."↗ Israel Institute of Biblical Studies (blog). March 8, 2014.

Wallace, J. Warner. "John's Gospel May Have Been Last, but It Wasn't Late."↗ Cold-Case Christianity. March 13, 2017.

Weiner, Rebecca. "Judaism: Who Is a Jew?"↗ Jewish Virtual Library.