Introduction
Paul of Tarsus (Hebrew: Shaul ha-Tarsi—Greek: Paulos tou Tarsou) was born circa AD 6 (3766–3767 in the Hebrew calendar) in the Roman province of Cilicia. In his letter to the church at Philippi, he gave this brief autobiography: "[I was] circumcised on the eighth day, of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews; in regard to the law, a Pharisee; as for zeal, persecuting the church; as for righteousness based on the law, faultless" (Phil. 3:5-6). In other words, Paul was a cradle Jew to the fullest ethnic, national, religious, clerical, and sociopolitical meaning of the word. If there was any debate about whether the term "Jew" referred to ethnicity or religion, he was both. Paul described himself in this way because of his diverse background. Sure, he was Jewish, but he was also from Tarsus, a renowned center of philosophy, rhetoric, and higher education among the Greeks. His father, a Roman citizen, endowed this benefit to Paul at birth. His parents were likely Hellenistic Jews, meaning they incorporated Greek culture into their Judaic traditions. Paul grew up in Tarsus but moved to Jerusalem for his theological education. He chose the Pharisee school, where he sat under the feet of Gamaliel (see Acts 22:3)—whose grandfather was the esteemed rabbi Hillel (c. 30 BC–AD 10). As a Pharisee, Paul learned about the written Torah and the oral Torah (i.e., Mishnah), rhetorical debate, wisdom, and the ascetic life.
Road to Damascus
Many Christians assume that God changed the apostle's name from "Saul" to "Paul" when he met Jesus on the way to Damascus. The idea of such a radical name change is scriptural, especially with Jacob to Israel in the Old Testament and Simon to Peter in the New Testament. However, Jesus addressed him as "Saul" when asking about his persecution of the church (see Acts 9:4). Even after Paul's conversion, other Jewish Christians still addressed him as "Saul" (e.g., Acts 9:17; 13:2, 7). Luke, who penned the Acts of the Apostles as a sequel to his namesake gospel, wrote, "Saul, who was also called Paul" (Acts 13:9). He had a Roman and a Jewish name. In Tarsus and Jerusalem, his family and other rabbis used "Saul" (Hebrew: Shaul; H7586). Yet, when he journeyed throughout the Mediterranean, the apostle used his Roman name, Paul (Latin: Paulus—Greek: Paulos; G3972). Although there was a Greek form of "Saul" (Saulos; G4569), he chose Paulos because saulos was a slang term for the erotic swagger of a prostitute.
The conversion of Paul was not so much about leaving Judaism for Christianity but God's correction of his misplaced zeal and viewpoints. It was more significant than religious conviction or a ritual; an existential crisis led Paul to meet the living God. During his three-year sabbatical in Arabia, Paul learned how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies about the Messiah (see Gal. 1:17-18). Even in his words, Paul never ceased to be a Jew and often worried about the spiritual condition of his people (see Rom. 2:29; 11; 1 Cor. 9:20). He wrote thirteen of the twenty-seven texts that now comprise the New Testament, all of the letters to various congregations throughout the Mediterranean. Yet, the Paul the Christian Gentiles knew starkly contrasted with Saul, who once terrified the Jewish Christians. As a Pharisee, Paul prided himself on his intelligent career move by learning from Gamaliel, giving him limitless opportunities for progression. He most likely believed that God favored him over the other Jewish scholars of his day. This bravado led Paul to show God and his fellow rabbis that he could defend the faith, even by force, if necessary. Today, commentators would identify Paul as a radical Jewish fundamentalist, his zeal driving him even to consider assault, battery, and, perhaps, murder. Ultimately, God did favor Paul, not because he assumed at the start of his religious career. Paul changed from a religious zealot who maliciously cheered on the stoning death of Stephen, a young deacon (see Acts 6-7), to God's messenger to the Gentiles, various political leaders, and the people of Israel (see Acts 9:15).
Paul: A Missionary for the Mediterranean
Much of the Acts of the Apostles reads like an epic Greco-Roman travel narrative, and the story of Paul does not disappoint. His odyssey began on the road to Damascus, where he met the risen Jesus and was blinded. After his baptism and the recovery of his eyesight, Paul journeyed to Arabia to study and learn more about Jesus' life and teaching. He participated in the Council of Jerusalem circa AD 50, where he contested Simon Peter over his ministry among the Gentiles (see Acts 15:1-21; Gal. 1:18-19). Paul suffered through five lashings, three beatings with rods, a stoning, three shipwrecks, imprisonments, and even a venomous snakebite (see Acts 28:3-6; 2 Cor. 11:23-25). However, Luke carefully wrote about Paul as a sorrowful man, not as one of the Greco-Roman heroes of old. He was simply a messenger of the gospel across the Roman Empire, which was Luke's central theme. Jesus chose Paul to inaugurate his church to the people of the "inhabited world" (Greek: oikoumenē; G3625) throughout the Mediterranean. Yet, God would use Paul to eventually take the gospel of Christ directly to the emperor's household. From there, the Jesus movement would increase worldwide (Greek: kosmos; G2889)—beyond the influence and legacy of Rome.
Paul completed a total of three missionary journeys. He returned to Jerusalem after his third tour ended in AD 57, living there for two years before his inevitable passage to Rome. Paul's reason for going back to Jerusalem was to deliver the monetary offering that he collected in Macedonia, knowing how poor the Jewish Christians were as opposed to their Gentile counterparts (see Rom. 15:26). He briefly stayed with Philip in Caesarea Maritima, where the prophet Agabus warned him, "The Holy Spirit says, 'In this way the Jewish leaders in Jerusalem will bind the owner of this belt and will hand him over to the Gentiles'" (Acts 21:10-11). It would be this same Caesarea Maritima that the Romans would detain Paul until they could try him. Within seven days of his return to Jerusalem, Paul angered some Jews from the Roman province of Asia. They blamed him for defiling the temple by inviting his Gentile companions to enter areas permitted only for Jews. James of Jerusalem, who led the Judaic church, and some other leaders attempted to warn Paul that he already had a reputation for snubbing the Law of Moses. He took James' advice and completed the Jewish rite of purification, fully immersing himself in the temple's ritual bath (Hebrew: mikveh; H4723) and shaving his head. Yet, it was too late for Paul. James intended to show the Jews from Asia that Paul was still observing the Law but making exemptions for the already exempted Gentiles. However, a number of the more fundamentalist Jews organized a mob to attack Paul. They detained him, slammed the temple doors, and intended to kill him. However, the Roman soldiers intervened to stop the disturbance and arrested Paul with chains. They brought him to the Antonia Fortress, the Roman military barracks which overlooked the Jerusalem temple, for processing. Then they sent him to Caesarea Maritima, the last seaport out of Judea (see Acts 21).
All Roads Lead to Rome
Jesus intended for Paul to bring the gospel to Rome from the day he confronted him near Damascus (see Acts 9:15-16). It is doubtful that Paul knew he was setting his death into motion when he invoked his Roman citizenship and appealed to the emperor. The Romans usually did not offer this appeal to Jews, and it was never an option for Jesus. Both Festus, the procurator of Judea from AD 58–60, and Herod Agrippa II (AD 27–c. 93) wanted to release Paul, but even they could not overrule an appeal to the emperor (see Acts 25:10-12; 26:32). Agrippa was only one of the kings whom Paul would preach the gospel to, the other being the infamous Nero (AD 37–68). He was the same emperor who, in July 64, burned down most of Palatine Hill to build his residence called the "Golden House" (Latin: Domus Aurea). Nero also used the Great Fire of Rome to persecute the Christian church and likely executed Paul as part of this bloodbath following two years of imprisonment. When Paul sailed for Jerusalem for the last time, he originally planned to visit Rome and continue to Spain (see Rom. 15:24, 28). Although the New Testament authors did not talk about Paul's martyrdom under Nero, its historicity was first attested by Clement of Rome (c. AD 30–c. 100)—the only first-century writer who alluded to it (1 Clem. 5:5). This may be the same Clement that Paul himself mentioned in his letter to the Philippians (4:3). Luke knew about Paul's martyrdom. Still, he decided to emphasize the gospel's arrival in Rome instead. His focus was on how Jesus' message overtook the capitals of Jerusalem, Samaria, and the Roman Empire (see Acts 1:8).
Conclusion
In conclusion, Paul of Tarsus emerges from the tapestry of history as a figure of profound complexity and significance. Born into the intersection of diverse cultural, religious, and philosophical currents, he navigated the intricacies of his identity with remarkable depth and purpose. From his early upbringing in the vibrant city of Tarsus, where Greek learning intertwined with Jewish tradition, to his rigorous education in Jerusalem under the esteemed Gamaliel, Paul's journey embodies a synthesis of diverse influences. His self-described identity as a Hebrew of Hebrews, a Pharisee zealous for the traditions of his fathers, resonates with a profound commitment to his heritage and faith. Yet, this fervor was transformed through a dramatic encounter with the risen Christ, leading him on a path of radical devotion and missionary zeal.
In his letters and travels, Paul would become a towering figure in the early Christian movement, bridging the gap between Jewish tradition and the burgeoning Gentile churches. Paul's legacy reverberates through the ages, shaping the contours of Christian theology, ethics, and mission. His writings continue to inspire and challenge believers across the globe, inviting us to wrestle with the complexities of faith and identity in a diverse and ever-changing world. Paul's life reminds us about the power of transformation, the richness of cultural exchange, and the enduring relevance of his message of grace, reconciliation, and love.
Prayer
Blessed are you, LORD our God, King of the universe; by the preaching of your apostle Paul, you have caused the light of the gospel to shine throughout the world. Grant, we pray that having his excellent conversion in remembrance, we may show ourselves thankful to you by following his holy teaching; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord, who lives and reigns with you, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.
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