Biblical Examination of Homosexuality

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Introduction

A Note to the Reader: In this article, we examine the Bible's teaching on homosexuality using the historical-grammatical method. Our goal is to equip Christians to apply Scripture faithfully in real life, showing how to extend both compassion and correction to those experiencing same-sex attraction. By understanding the biblical text in its original context, we can engage others with truth and love, striking a balance between conviction and care.

In 1 Corinthians 6:9 and 1 Timothy 1:10, Paul includes the Greek term arsenokoitēs, commonly translated as "men who have sex with men" or "those practicing homosexuality." Before examining the meaning of this term, it is important to distinguish modern concepts of sexual orientation from the categories reflected in the language of the New Testament. The term homosexuality, which entered the English language in the late nineteenth century, describes a psychological or sexual orientation rather than a specific behavior. By contrast, Paul's terminology reflects first-century Jewish and Greco-Roman categories that focused primarily on conduct rather than on sexual identity. Consequently, interpreting arsenokoitēs requires careful attention to its historical, linguistic, and cultural context rather than reading modern conceptions of sexual orientation back into the biblical text.

By contrast, the Greek word Paul used in both passages, arsenokoitēs (G733), describes same-sex sexual behavior rather than orientation. The compound combines arsēn (G730, "male") and koitē (G2845, "bed," often a euphemism for sexual intercourse). Most scholars conclude Paul coined or adapted the term arsenokoitēs directly from the Septuagint wording of Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13. Although the noun arsenokoitēs itself does not appear in the Septuagint, the two words from which it is formed—arsēn and koitē—occur together in the prohibition against a man lying with a male as with a woman. Because Paul and many of his readers were familiar with the Septuagint, many scholars argue that the term intentionally echoes the language of Leviticus:

Kai hos an koimēthē meta arsenos koitēn gunakois bdelugma epoiēsan amphoteroi.

καὶ ὃς ἂν κοιμηθῇ μετὰ ἄρσενος κοίτην γυναικός βδέλυγμα ἐποίησαν ἀμφότεροι.

If whoever sleeps with [a] male sexually [as with a] woman, [an] offense did they both.

Some scholars note that Greek writers often used terms such as erastēs ("erotic lover") and erōmenos ("erotic beloved") when describing age-structured same-sex relationships. Many interpreters understand malakos (G3120, "soft") as referring to the passive partner in male same-sex relations, though the term has been interpreted in several ways. The adjective malakos also appears in Matthew 11:8 and Luke 7:25, where Jesus refers to Herod's "soft" robes and luxurious clothing. This usage illustrates the word's basic meaning, though its precise sense in 1 Corinthians 6:9 remains debated.

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Greco-Roman Context of Homosexuality

Many Greek and Roman moralists believed that sexual intercourse should occur only between a man and a woman for procreation, reserving pleasure in same-sex relationships for slaves, prostitutes, and others barred from Roman citizenship. When biblical translators interpret malakos in the context of prostitution and other exploitative relationships, they often focus too much on secondary meanings. Even today, we use the term "soft" to criticize weakness or praise kindness. Although malakos literally means "soft," its precise meaning in 1 Corinthians 6:9 remains debated. Proposed interpretations include moral weakness, effeminacy, the passive partner in male same-sex intercourse, or a broader reference to sexual immorality. Whatever nuance Paul intended, the pairing of malakos with arsenokoitai suggests that both participate in Paul's broader condemnation of illicit sexual behavior.

Female same-sex relationships occupied a different social and literary space than male relationships in the ancient world, making them less frequently discussed in surviving sources. The term "lesbian" originally referred to residents of Lesbos (Greek: Lesvos), an island in the Aegean Sea. The poet Sappho (c. 610–570 BC) hailed from Mytilene (Greek: Mutilēnē, G3412), a city still on Lesbos and mentioned by Luke (Acts 20:14). Sappho remains a controversial figure, as scholars debate whether she was a proto-feminist, a homosexual, or a prostitute. Because of Sappho's association with female homoerotic poetry and the island of Lesbos, her legacy contributed to the later development of the term "lesbian." Sappho led a school of disciples devoted to the pagan goddess Aphrodite. While some of her writings suggest desire for men, many passages hint at female homoeroticism within her school. Some scholars suggest that these relationships formed part of the social and educational preparation for marriage to men.

Today, many commentators argue that Paul condemned homosexuality only in the context of pagan fertility cults, suggesting a possible exception for committed same-sex relationships. They also project modern assumptions onto ancient Greek culture, claiming such practices were rare. Same-sex relationships were widely attested throughout the Greco-Roman world, particularly in the form of pederasty. Yet, contrary to common assumptions, not all Greeks approved of homosexuality. Plato demonstrates that not all pagan philosophers celebrated same-sex relationships:

And whether one makes the observation in earnest or in jest, one certainly should not fail to observe that when male unites with female for procreation the pleasure experienced is held to be due to nature, but contrary to nature when male mates with male or female with female, and that those first guilty of such enormities were impelled by their slavery to pleasure. And we all accuse the Cretans of concocting the story about Ganymede. Because they believed they derived their laws from Zeus, they added this story about him so that they might follow his example and enjoy this pleasure as well. Now with the story itself we have no more concern; but when men are investigating the subject of laws their investigation deals almost entirely with pleasures and pains, whether in states or in individuals (Leg. 1.636c–d).

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Hebrew Context of Homosexuality

Unlike many surrounding cultures, Israel's sexual ethic was grounded not in social convention but in covenant identity. The holiness code repeatedly distinguishes Israel from the practices of Egypt and Canaan (Lev. 18:3; 20:23–26). Sexual conduct became one expression of Israel's vocation to be a holy people set apart for God.

As noted above, Paul drew on the holiness code in Leviticus when addressing same-sex relationships between men. The Old Testament authors broadly did not address lesbianism, and Paul was the first biblical writer to mention it explicitly. He writes:

Because of this, God gave them over to shameful lusts. Even their women exchanged natural sexual relations for unnatural ones. In the same way, the men also abandoned natural relations with women and were inflamed with lust for one another. Men committed shameful acts with other men and received in themselves the due penalty for their error (Rom. 1:26–27).

One of Paul's contemporaries, the Jewish writer Philo, expressed an equally severe view of same-sex relations, condemning them as contrary to nature and virtue. Philo illustrates how many first-century Jews interpreted the Law of Moses:

He brings out the point most clearly and elaborately in what follows. The land of the Sodomites, a part of the land of Canaan afterward called Palestinian Syria, was brimful of innumerable iniquities, particularly those arising from gluttony and lewdness, and multiplied and enlarged every other possible pleasure with so formidable a menace that it had at last been condemned by the Judge of all.

The inhabitants owed this extreme license to the never-failing lavishness of their sources of wealth, for, deep-soiled and well-watered as it was, the land had every year a prolific harvest of all manner of fruits, and the chief beginning of evils, as one has aptly said, is goods in excess.

Incapable of bearing such satiety, plunging like cattle, they threw off the law of nature from their necks and applied themselves to deep drinking of strong liquor, dainty feeding, and forbidden forms of intercourse. Not only in their mad lust for women did they violate the marriages of their neighbors, but also men mounted males without respect for the sex nature which the active partner shares with the passive; and so when they tried to beget children they were discovered to be incapable of any but a sterile seed. Yet the discovery availed them not, so much stronger was the force of the lust which mastered them.

Then, as little by little they accustomed those who were by nature men to submit to play the part of women, they saddled them with the formidable curse of a female disease. For not only did they emasculate their bodies by luxury and voluptuousness, but they wrought a further degeneration in their souls and, as far as lay in them, were corrupting the whole of mankind. Certainly, had Greeks and barbarians joined together in affecting such unions, city after city would have become a desert, as though depopulated by a pestilential sickness (Abr. 133–136).

By the first century, many Jewish interpreters understood the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. 19) as God's judgment for sexual immorality, including same-sex intercourse, as well as the attempted gang rape depicted in the narrative. The first-century Jewish historian Josephus likewise reflected this interpretation, writing:

About this time the Sodomites grew proud, on account of their riches and great wealth; they became unjust towards men, and impious towards God, insomuch that they did not call to mind the advantages they received from him: they hated strangers, and abused themselves with Sodomitical practices. God was therefore much displeased at them, and determined to punish them for their pride, and to overthrow their city, and to lay waste their country, until there should neither plant nor fruit grow out of it.

When God had thus resolved concerning the Sodomites, Abraham, as he sat by the oak of Mambre, at the door of his tent, saw three angels; and thinking them to be strangers, he rose up, and saluted them, and desired they would accept of an entertainment, and abide with him; to which, when they agreed, he ordered cakes of meal to be made presently; and when he had slain a calf, he roasted it, and brought it to them, as they sat under the oak. Now they made a show of eating; and besides, they asked him about his wife Sarah, where she was; and when he said she was within, they said they would come again hereafter, and find her become a mother. Upon which the woman laughed, and said that it was impossible she should bear children, since she was ninety years of age, and her husband was a hundred. Then they concealed themselves no longer, but declared that they were angels of God; and that one of them was sent to inform them about the child, and two of the overthrow of Sodom.

When Abraham heard this, he was grieved for the Sodomites; and he rose up, and besought God for them, and entreated him that he would not destroy the righteous with the wicked. And when God had replied that there was no good man among the Sodomites; for if there were but ten such men among them, he would not punish any of them for their sins, Abraham held his peace. And the angels came to the city of the Sodomites, and Lot entreated them to accept of a lodging with him; for he was a very generous and hospitable man, and one that had learned to imitate the goodness of Abraham. Now when the Sodomites saw the young men to be of beautiful countenances, and this to an extraordinary degree, and that they took up their lodgings with Lot, they resolved themselves to enjoy these beautiful boys by force and violence; and when Lot exhorted them to sobriety, and not to offer any thing immodest to the strangers, but to have regard to their lodging in his house; and promised that if their inclinations could not be governed, he would expose his daughters to their lust, instead of these strangers; neither thus were they made ashamed (Ant. 1.11.1–3).

First-century Jews viewed homosexuality as one of the reasons God destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah. Furthermore, the prophet Ezekiel wrote, "Now this was the sin of your sister Sodom: She and her daughters were arrogant, overfed, and unconcerned; they did not help the poor and needy. They were haughty and did detestable things before me. Therefore, I did away with them as you have seen" (Ezek. 16:49–50).

Many Jewish and Christian interpreters have understood the phrase to include the sexual sins associated with the Sodom narrative. Jude, one of Jesus' brothers, affirmed this understanding: "In a similar way, Sodom and Gomorrah and the surrounding towns gave themselves up to sexual immorality and perversion. They serve as an example of those who suffer the punishment of eternal fire" (Jude 1:7). When reading these passages, it is essential to remember that God judged Sodom and Gomorrah for multiple offenses. Focusing on only one sin over the others misses the broader point: God condemns arrogance, injustice, inhospitality, and sexual immorality alike.

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Biblical Vision for Sexuality

Using the historical-grammatical method, the original texts reveal a clear understanding of same-sex behavior. Because the rainbow has become a cultural symbol associated with homosexuality, it is worth revisiting its biblical origin as the sign of God's covenant with Noah. God's rainbow covenant belongs to him alone (Gen. 9:13–16), yet he commands us to love our neighbor as ourselves (e.g., Lev. 19:18; Matt. 19:19; 22:39)—forbidding bigotry while upholding his truth. Marriage is a covenant between a man and a woman to advance God's kingdom (Gen. 1:26–27; 2:24; Matt. 19:4–6; Mark 10:6–9; Eph. 5:32). Scripture evaluates both desire and conduct, yet it does not speak in terms of modern concepts of sexual orientation. Paul presents both same-sex desire and conduct among the consequences of humanity's rebellion against God (Rom. 1:26–32). Questions about the origins of sexual orientation remain secondary to Paul's ethical concern with desire and conduct.

Research confirms that same-sex attraction may arise from biological, psychological, and social factors, yet experiencing attraction does not necessitate acting on it. Consider this statement by the American Psychological Association:

There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual, gay, or lesbian orientation. Although much research has examined the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or factors. Many think that nature and nurture both play complex roles; most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation.

Regardless of the causes of sexual orientation, Scripture distinguishes involuntary temptation from the sinful desires and actions for which people are morally accountable. Taken together, the Bible's historical setting and its linguistic evidence point in the same direction. Scripture consistently reserves sexual intimacy for the covenant of marriage between a man and a woman while distinguishing temptation from sinful conduct. The church serves Christ best not by choosing between truth and compassion, but by holding fast to both. Faithfulness means proclaiming God's design without compromise while extending his grace to every sinner, calling all people to repentance, holiness, and the hope of the gospel.

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Bibliography

Primary Sources

Josephus. The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Version. Translated by William Whiston. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987.

Philo. The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Version. Translated by C. D. Yonge. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993.

Pietersma, Albert, and Benjamin G. Wright, eds. A New English Translation of the Septuagint. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Plato. Laws. Translated by R. G. Bury. In Plato in Twelve Volumes. Vols. 10–11. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, 1926.

Commentaries

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Anchor Yale Bible—First Corinthians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.

Moo, Douglas J. The Epistle to the Romans. New International Commentary on the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2018.

Schreiner, Thomas R. Romans. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018.

Thiselton, Anthony C. The First Epistle to the Corinthians. New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000.

Monographs

Brooten, Bernadette J. Love Between Women: Early Christian Responses to Female Homoeroticism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

Brownson, James V. Bible, Gender, Sexuality: Reframing the Church's Debate on Same-Sex Relationships. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2013.

DeYoung, Kevin. What Does the Bible Really Teach About Homosexuality? Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2015.

Dover, K. J. Greek Homosexuality. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2016.

Gagnon, Robert A. The Bible and Homosexual Practice: Texts and Hermeneutics. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001.

Greenberg, David F. The Construction of Homosexuality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.

Halperin, David M. One Hundred Years of Homosexuality: And Other Essays on Greek Love. New York: Routledge, 1990.

Hays, Richard B. The Moral Vision of the New Testament. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996.

Loader, William. The New Testament on Sexuality. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012.

Edited Volumes

Brawley, Robert L., ed. Biblical Ethics and Homosexuality: Listening to Scripture. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1996.

Sprinkle, Preston, ed. Two Views on Homosexuality, the Bible, and the Church. Counterpoints. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016.

Reference Works

Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books. San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006.

Danker, Frederick W., ed. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.

Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006.

Journal Articles

Parker, Holt N. "Sappho Schoolmistress."↗ Transactions of the American Philological Association 123 (1993): 309–51.

Online Resources

"Understanding Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality."↗ American Psychological Association. October 29, 2008.