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Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Matthew of Capernaum (Hebrew: Mattityahu ha-Kfar-Nachumi —Greek: Matthaios tou Kapernaoum ) was born circa AD 5 (3765–3766 in the Hebrew calendar) in the Roman district of Galilee. Also known as Levi, he was the son of Alphaeus and the brother of James ( Mark 2:14 ,  3:18 ; cf.  Matt. 10:3 ). This means he came from a Levitical family, which named him Matityahu , meaning "gift of God" ( mattat ; H4991 ; Yahweh ; H3068 ) in Hebrew. As an adult, Matthew moved to Capernaum to work as a publican (Greek: telōnēs ; G5057 , lit. one who "pays at the end"), a local national contractor who worked for the Roman government. In this role, he primarily collected taxes from his fellow Jews to send back to Caesarea Maritima, the Roman capital of Judea. The Jewish people considered such publicans traitors of Israel in its sociopolitical and spiritual dimensions—they were domestic enemies of God and the nation. Despite his profession causing him to be viewed unfavorably by his people, Matthew's encounter with Jesus changed the trajectory of his life. According to the gospel accounts, Jesus approached Matthew at his tax booth and said, "Follow me" ( Matt. 9:9 ). In a moment of profound transformation, Matthew responded by leaving everything behind to become one of Jesus' twelve disciples. This decision marked the beginning of Matthew's journey as a devoted follower of Jesus Christ. He witnessed firsthand the teachings, miracles, and, ultimately, the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. After the resurrection, Matthew played a crucial role in spreading the message of Christianity, particularly among the Jewish community. His gospel, one of the four canonical accounts of Jesus' life and ministry, reflects his unique perspective as a former tax collector who became a disciple of Jesus. Through his writings and his life, Matthew exemplifies the transformative power of encountering Jesus and the call to follow him wholeheartedly. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Matthew the Publican ​ Tax collectors were not just government revenue agents, but they also employed tactics more commonly associated with organized crime. Yes, we could say Matthew was more of a mobster than an auditor. The Romans auctioned individual tax and debt collections to their publicans under contract, an integral part of the census. The collectors received a lump sum pay advance in exchange for the services rendered. Even though the Romans sent officers to oversee tax collection, the publicans customarily bribed them in the form of kickbacks. The imperial income tax was technically set at one percent, starting from AD 6; however, nearly every public service and item was subject to taxation. The average Judean or Galilean paid approximately fifty percent of their gross income in taxes, both imperial and local. The publicans often used intimidation and bullying tactics to extort money, which was the reason John the Baptist told them, "Don't collect any more than you are required to" ( Luke 3:13 ). Jews and Gentiles alike considered tax collectors to be low society; even the Roman statesman Cicero (106–43 BC) viewed their job as unfitting of a proper gentleman. Matthew worked at the tollhouse (Greek: telōnion ; G5058 ) in Capernaum on the famous trade route between the Mediterranean seaports and Damascus. He was the opposite of Simon the Zealot, one a traitor to his people and the other an ultranationalist. Perhaps Jesus chose these two men as apostles to counterbalance each other and show that his teaching was apolitical. When Matthew first met Jesus, he immediately left his tax booth to follow him. We do not know what the Lord said to him aside from "follow me" ( Luke 5:27 ). Matthew, like the tax collector in Jesus' parable, said in his heart, "God, have mercy on me, a sinner" ( Luke 18:13 ). He was living the "Roman dream" with a large house, status, influence, wealth, and many friends. Yet, Matthew gave up his career and estate to celebrate Jesus with a great banquet and to follow him as a disciple ( Luke 5:29 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Matthew the Evangelist ​ After Pentecost,​ Matthew began evangelizing with the other apostles circa 33. He continued to preach in the Jewish communities throughout Judea province. Incidentally, the Talmud mentions a certain disciple of Jesus the Nazarene called Mattai, whom the Sanhedrin planned to execute for blasphemy ( Sanhedrin 43a:22 ). Sometime around 55, Matthew began writing his biography of Jesus to a predominantly Jewish audience. However, most biblical scholars believe that John Mark wrote the first of the four canonical gospels, with Matthew and Luke of Antioch each using the same list of Jesus' sayings in Aramaic—hypothetically known as "Q," from the German word Quelle , "Source." In the second century, Papias of Hierapolis (70–155) said, "But concerning Matthew he writes as follows: 'So then Matthew wrote the oracles [ logia ; G3051 , "sayings"] in the Hebrew language, and everyone interpreted them as he was able'" (Eusebius, Church History 3.39 ). Therefore, Papias considered Matthew the first of the four Gospels to be written. However, his use of the noun logia may not refer to his full biography of Jesus but only to a raw, unedited list of quotes. Matthew probably wrote his account based on Mark, knowing that Mark had recorded Peter's eyewitness testimony while attending to him in Rome. As a tax collector who liaised between Roman officers and their Jewish debtors, Matthew was fluent in Aramaic and the imperial business language of koinē Greek. He portrayed Jesus in very Jewish word pictures, especially as both the new Israel and the new Moses; one who overcame the temptations of which the Israelites failed ( Matt. 4:1–11 ; cf. Num. 14:34 ), who also enhanced the Law of Moses with both positivity and higher expectations ( Matt. 5–7 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion Matthew's life is a powerful example of transformation through faith. As a tax collector, many in his community viewed him as an outsider; yet, Jesus called him to be a disciple, demonstrating that God's grace is available to everyone. By choosing to follow Jesus, Matthew left behind his old life and dedicated himself to spreading the message of Christ. His gospel provides a detailed account of Jesus' teaching, emphasizing the importance of faith, humility, and redemption. Matthew's story reminds us that no matter our past, we can find a new purpose through faith and a willingness to serve God. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you called Matthew from collecting taxes to become your apostle and evangelist. Grant us the grace to forsake all covetous desires and excessive love of riches so that we may follow you as he did and proclaim to the world around us the good news of your salvation; for with the Father and the Holy Spirit, you live and reign, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006.​ ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​​Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Eusebius. "The Church History of Eusebius." Translated by Arthur Cushman McGiffert. In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Ser. 2, Vol. 1: Eusebius Pamphilus: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine . Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1890. ​ Houdmann, S. Michael. "Who Was Matthew in the Bible?" Got Questions. January 4, 2022. link . Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ ​Kalas, J. Ellsworth. The Thirteen Apostles . Nashville: Abingdon, 2012. ​ Kasdan, Barney. Matthew: Presents Yeshua, King Messiah . Clarksville, MD: Messianic Jewish Publications, 2011. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 2016. ​ Kirkegaard, Brad. "Rendering to Caesar and to God: Paying Taxes in the Roman World." Journal of Lutheran Ethics 6, no. 4 (2006). link . Spitzer, Jeffrey. "Taxing Times." My Jewish Learning. link . ​ ​Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020.

Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Introduction Paul of Tarsus (Hebrew: Shaul ha-Tarsi —Greek: Paulos tou Tarsou ) was born circa AD 6 (3766–3767 in the Hebrew calendar) in the Roman province of Cilicia. In his letter to the church at Philippi, he gave this brief autobiography: "[I was] circumcised on the eighth day, of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews; in regard to the law, a Pharisee; as for zeal, persecuting the church; as for righteousness based on the law, faultless" ( Phil. 3:5–6 ). In other words, Paul was a cradle Jew in the fullest ethnic, national, religious, clerical, and sociopolitical meanings of the word. If there was any debate about whether the term "Jew" referred to ethnicity or religion, he was both. Paul described himself in this way because of his diverse background. Sure, he was Jewish, but he was also from Tarsus, a renowned center of philosophy, rhetoric, and higher education among the Greeks. His father, a Roman citizen, endowed this benefit upon Paul's birth. His parents were likely Hellenistic Jews, meaning they incorporated Greek culture into their Judaic traditions. Paul grew up in Tarsus but moved to Jerusalem for his theological education. He chose the Pharisee school, where he sat under the feet of Gamaliel (c. AD 1–c. 49) ( Acts 22:3 )—whose grandfather was the esteemed rabbi Hillel (c. 30 BC–AD 10). As a Pharisee, Paul learned about the Written Torah and the Oral Torah (as finally recorded in the Talmud, circa AD 300–350), rhetorical debate, wisdom, and the ascetic life. Courtesy of Broettcher+Trinklein TV Road to Damascus Many Christians assume that God changed the apostle's name from "Saul" to "Paul" when he met Jesus on the way to Damascus. The idea of such a radical name change is scriptural, as seen in the examples of Jacob becoming Israel in the Old Testament and Simon becoming Peter in the New Testament. However, Jesus addressed him as "Saul" when inquiring about his persecution of the church ( Acts 9:4 ). Even after Paul's conversion, other Jewish Christians continued to address him as "Saul" (e.g., Acts 9:17 , 13:2 , 7 ). Luke, who penned the Acts of the Apostles as a sequel to his namesake gospel, wrote, "Saul, who was also called Paul" ( Acts 13:9 ). He had a Roman and a Jewish name. In Tarsus and Jerusalem, his family and other rabbis used "Saul" (Hebrew: Shaul ; H7586 ). Yet, when he journeyed throughout the Mediterranean, the apostle used his Roman name, Paul (Latin: Paulus —Greek: Paulos ; G3972 ). Although there was a Greek form of "Saul" ( Saulos ; G4569 ), he chose Paulos because saulos was a slang term for the erotic swagger of a prostitute. ​ The conversion of Paul was not so much about leaving Judaism for Christianity but God's correction of his misplaced zeal and viewpoints. It was more significant than religious conviction or a ritual; an existential crisis led Paul to meet the living God. During his three-year sabbatical in Arabia, Paul learned how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies about the Messiah ( Gal. 1:17–18 ). Even in his words, Paul never ceased to be a Jew and often worried about the spiritual condition of his people ( Rom. 2:29 , 11 ; 1 Cor. 9:20 ). He wrote thirteen of the twenty-seven texts that now comprise the New Testament, all of the letters to various congregations throughout the Mediterranean. Yet, the Paul the Christian Gentiles knew starkly contrasted with Saul, who once terrified the Jewish Christians. As a Pharisee, Paul prided himself on his intelligent career move, having learned from Gamaliel, which gave him limitless opportunities for progression. He most likely believed that God favored him over the other Jewish scholars of his day. This bravado led Paul to show God and his fellow rabbis that he could defend the faith, even by force, if necessary. Today, commentators would identify Paul as a radical Jewish fundamentalist, his zeal driving him even to consider assault, battery, and, perhaps, murder. Ultimately, God did favor Paul, not because he assumed at the start of his religious career. Paul changed from a religious zealot who maliciously cheered the stoning death of Stephen, a young deacon ( Acts 6–7 ), to God's messenger to the Gentiles, various political leaders, and the people of Israel ( Acts 9:15 ). Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Paul: A Missionary for the Mediterranean Much of the Acts of the Apostles reads like an epic Greco-Roman travel narrative, and the story of Paul does not disappoint. His odyssey began on the road to Damascus, where he met the risen Jesus and was blinded. After his baptism and the recovery of his eyesight, Paul journeyed to Arabia to study and learn more about Jesus' life and teaching. He participated in the Council of Jerusalem around AD 50, where he disputed with Simon Peter over his ministry among the Gentiles ( Acts 15:1–21 ; Gal. 1:18–19 ). Paul suffered through five lashings, three beatings with rods, a stoning, three shipwrecks, imprisonments, and even a venomous snakebite ( Acts 28:3–6 ; 2 Cor. 11:23–25 ). However, Luke carefully wrote about Paul as a sorrowful man, not as one of the Greco-Roman heroes of old. He was simply a messenger of the gospel across the Roman Empire, which was Luke's central theme. Jesus chose Paul to inaugurate his church to the people of the "inhabited world" (Greek: oikoumenē ; G3625 ) throughout the Mediterranean. Yet, God would use Paul to eventually take the gospel of Christ directly to the emperor's household. From there, the Jesus movement would increase worldwide (Greek: kosmos ; G2889 )—beyond the influence and legacy of Rome. ​ Paul completed a total of three missionary journeys. He returned to Jerusalem after his third tour ended in AD 57, where he lived for two years before his inevitable passage to Rome. Paul's reason for going back to Jerusalem was to deliver the monetary offering that he collected in Macedonia, knowing how poor the Jewish Christians were as opposed to their Gentile counterparts ( Rom. 15:26 ). He briefly stayed with Philip in Caesarea Maritima, where the prophet Agabus warned him, "The Holy Spirit says, 'In this way the Jewish leaders in Jerusalem will bind the owner of this belt and will hand him over to the Gentiles'" ( Acts 21:10–11 ). It would be this same Caesarea Maritima that the Romans would detain Paul until they could try him. Within seven days of his return to Jerusalem, Paul angered some Jews from the Roman province of Asia. They blamed him for defiling the temple by inviting his Gentile companions to enter areas permitted only for Jews. James of Jerusalem, who led the Judaic church, and some other leaders attempted to warn Paul that he already had a reputation for snubbing the Law of Moses. He took James' advice and completed the Jewish rite of purification, fully immersing himself in the temple's ritual bath (Hebrew: mikveh ; H4723 ) and shaving his head. Yet, it was too late for Paul. James intended to show the Jews from Asia that Paul was still observing the Law but making exemptions for the already exempted Gentiles. However, a number of the more fundamentalist Jews organized a mob to attack Paul. They detained him, slammed the temple doors, and intended to kill him. However, the Roman soldiers intervened to stop the disturbance and arrested Paul with chains. They brought him to the Antonia Fortress, a Roman military barracks that overlooked the Second Temple, for processing. Then they sent him to Caesarea Maritima, the last seaport out of Judea ( Acts 21 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com All Roads Lead to Rome ​ Jesus intended for Paul to bring the gospel to Rome from the day he confronted him near Damascus ( Acts 9:15–16 ). It is doubtful that Paul knew he was setting his death into motion when he invoked his Roman citizenship and appealed to the emperor. The Romans usually did not offer this appeal to Jews, and it was never an option for Jesus. Both Festus (r. AD 58–60), the procurator of Judea, and Herod Agrippa II (r. AD 48–100) wanted to release Paul, but even they could not overrule an appeal to the emperor ( Acts 25:10–12 , 26:32 ). Agrippa was only one of the kings whom Paul would preach the gospel to, the other being the infamous Nero (r. AD 54–68). He was the same emperor who, in July AD 64, burned down most of the Palatine Hill to build his residence, known as the "Golden House" (Latin: Domus Aurea ). Nero also used the Great Fire of Rome to persecute the Christian church and likely executed Paul as part of this bloodbath following two years of imprisonment. When Paul sailed for Jerusalem for the last time, he originally planned to visit Rome and continue to Spain ( Rom. 15:24 , 28 ). Although the New Testament authors did not talk about Paul's martyrdom under Nero, its historicity was first attested by Clement of Rome (c. AD 30–c. 100)—the only first-century writer who alluded to it ( 1 Clem. 5 ). This may be the same Clement that Paul himself mentioned in his letter to the Philippians ( Phil. 4:3 ). Luke knew about Paul's martyrdom. Still, he decided to emphasize the gospel's arrival in Rome instead. His focus was on how Jesus' message overtook the capitals of Jerusalem, Samaria, and the Roman Empire ( Acts 1:8 ). Courtesy of Broettcher+Trinklein TV Conclusion Paul was a complex and important figure in history. He was born into a diverse mix of cultures, religions, and philosophies, which shaped his identity and sense of purpose. He grew up in Tarsus, a city where Greek and Jewish traditions blended, and later studied under the well-known teacher Gamaliel in Jerusalem. Paul described himself as a "Hebrew of Hebrews" and a Pharisee who was passionate about keeping Jewish traditions. However, his life changed after a powerful encounter with the risen Christ. This event led him to dedicate himself fully to spreading his new faith with great energy and commitment. Paul played a pivotal role in the early Christian movement through his letters and travels, bridging the connection between Jewish tradition and the growing Gentile churches. His influence shaped Christian beliefs, ethics, and mission, and his writings continue to guide and challenge believers today. Paul's life exemplifies the power of change, the value of different cultures learning from one another, and the enduring importance of his message about grace, reconciliation, and love. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; by the preaching of your apostle Paul, you have caused the light of the gospel to shine throughout the world. Grant, we pray that having his excellent conversion in remembrance, we may show ourselves thankful to you by following his holy teaching; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord, who lives and reigns with you, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Bailey, Kenneth E. Paul Through Mediterranean Eyes: Cultural Studies in 1 Corinthians . Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2011. ​ Bird, Michael F. An Anomalous Jew: Paul Among Jews, Greeks, and Romans . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2016. ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Bruce, F. F. New Testament History . New York: Doubleday, 1983. Clement. "The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians." In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 1: The Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus . Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1885. Everts, Jane Meyer. "The Apostle Paul and His Times." Christian History 47 (1995). link . ​ Fredriksen, Paula. Paul: The Pagans' Apostle . New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017. Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible . 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010. Hemer, Colin J. "The Name of Paul." Tyndale Bulletin 36, no. 1 (1985): 179–83. link . Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. Leary, T. J. "Paul's Improper Name." New Testament Studies 38, no. 3 (1992): 467–69. link . ​ McDowell, Sean. The Fate of the Apostles: Examining the Martyrdom Accounts of the Closest Followers of Jesus . New York: Routledge, 2016. ​ Nanos, Mark D., and Magnus Zetterholm, eds. Paul Within Judaism: Restoring the First-Century Context to the Apostle . Minneapolis: Fortress, 2015. ​ Schlechter, Solomon, and Wilhelm Bacher. "Hillel." Jewish Encyclopedia . Philadelphia: Kopelman, 2021. link . Schreiner, Thomas R., Luke Timothy Johnson, Douglas A. Campbell, and Mark D. Nanos. Four Views on the Apostle Paul . Counterpoints. Edited by Michael F. Bird and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Witherington, Ben, III. The Paul Quest: The Renewed Search for the Jew of Tarsus . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1998. ​ Wright, N. T. Interpreting Paul: Essays on the Apostle and His Letters . Collected Essays of N. T. Wright. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2020. ⸻. Paul: A Biography . New York: HarperCollins, 2018. ⸻. Paul: In Fresh Perspective . Minneapolis: Fortress, 2009. ​ ⸻. Paul and the Faithfulness of God . Vol. 4 of Christian Origins and the Question of God. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2013. ​ Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019. ​ Young, Brad H. Paul the Jewish Theologian: A Pharisee Among Christians, Jews, and Gentiles . Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1997.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Philip of Bethsaida (Greek: Philippos tis Bēthsaidas ) was born circa AD 10 (3770–3771 in the Hebrew calendar) in the Roman district of Gaulanitis. He was a fisherman from the city of Bethsaida and worked with Andrew and Peter ( John 1:44 , 12:21 ). Philip of Bethsaida should not be confused with the evangelist Philip of Jerusalem, whom the apostles appointed a deacon with Stephen to manage the church's distribution to widows ( Acts 6:5 ). Philip's role as one of the original twelve apostles highlights the diversity among Jesus' closest followers. Hailing from a humble background as a fisherman in Bethsaida, Philip's journey with Jesus exemplifies the inclusive nature of Christ's ministry, which reaches out to people from diverse walks of life. His encounters with Jesus, recorded in the gospels, offer valuable insights into faith, discipleship, and the transformative power of encountering the living Christ. Despite the limited information available about his specific actions and teachings, Philip's presence among the apostles underscores the significance of each individual's contribution to spreading the Christian message. Through his obedience and dedication, Philip exemplifies the call for all believers to share the good news of salvation and to lead others into a deeper relationship with Jesus Christ. ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Philip the Apostle ​ The synoptic gospel writers listed Philip among Jesus' twelve apostles without giving any further details about him ( Matt. 10:3 ; Mark 3:18 ; Luke 6:14 ). John, however, provided a little more about his calling as a disciple: The next day Jesus, decided to leave for Galilee. Finding Philip, he said to him, "Follow me." Philip, like Andrew and Peter, was from the town of Bethsaida. Philip found Nathanael and told him, "We have found the one Moses wrote about in the Law, and about whom the prophets also wrote—Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph" ( John 1:43–45 ). Philip was an efficient man. When they ran out of food for the crowd of five thousand, Philip was the apostle whom Jesus chose to test. Jesus knew that he would supernaturally multiply the fish and the loaves of bread, just as the prophet Elisha had done ( John 6:5–6 ; cf.  2 Kgs. 4:42–44 ). Philip answered, "It would take more than half a year's wages to buy enough bread for each one to have a bite!" ( John 6:7 ). However, Jesus continued to feed the multitude with five loaves and two small fish. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Bringing People to Jesus ​ Like Andrew, Philip receives little coverage in the Bible. Yet, when he appears, Philip asks practical questions and leads people to know God through Jesus. He served as a liaison between the Jewish community and the Greek community. Although he was Galilean, Philip had a Greek name ( Philippos ; G5376 , "lover of horses"), spoke in the koinē Greek dialect, and had a rapport with the Hellenistic Jewish pilgrims in Jerusalem. He informed Andrew that certain Greeks wished to meet Jesus, and they went together to tell him about it ( John 12:21 ). Jesus knew that Greeks usually took issue with resurrection ( Acts 17:31–32 ; 1 Cor. 1:23 ), so he challenged these men on the topic: "The hour has come for the Son of Man to be glorified. . . . Anyone who loves their life will lose it, while anyone who hates their life in this world will keep it for eternal life. Whoever serves me must follow me; and where I am, my servant also will be. My Father will honor the one who serves me" ( John 12:23 , 25–26 ). Jesus was teaching them about salvation, which is made perfect through his resurrection and glorification. ​ During the Last Supper, Philip inquired of Jesus, "Lord, show us the Father and that will be enough for us" ( John 14:8 ). Jesus responded, "Don't you know me, Philip, even after I have been among you such a long time? Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father. How can you say, 'Show us the Father?' Don't you believe that I am in the Father, and that the Father is in me? The words I say to you I do not speak on my own authority. Rather, it is the Father, living in me, who is doing his work" ( John 14:9–10 ). Philip's question allowed Jesus to teach us about the unity of the Father and the Son ( see " Trinity: Jewish & Gentile Views "). Although the New Testament writers did not mention Philip much, his brief appearances involved some essential theological concepts. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion Philip's role as one of Jesus' twelve apostles demonstrates that everyone, regardless of background, has a significant role in God's mission. Although details of his life are limited, his example highlights the importance of humble faithfulness and the value of sharing God's message. Philip's story encourages us to seek our role in serving God's purpose and faithfully contributing to the spread of the gospel, to bring people to Jesus. Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you gave your apostle Philip the grace and strength to witness Jesus as the way, the truth, and the life. Grant that we, mindful of his victory of faith, may glorify in life and death the name of our Lord Jesus the Messiah, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen. Bibliography Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ Laurie, Greg. "The Apostle Philip: Bible Story and Significance." Christianity.com. April 15, 2024. link . ​ Nelson, Ryan. "Who Was Philip the Apostle? The Beginner's Guide." OverviewBible. June 10, 2019. link .

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Pontius Pilate (Latin: Pontius Pilatus —Greek: Pontios Pilatos ) was born circa AD 5 (3765–3766 in the Hebrew calendar) in the Roman province of Italy. He came from the well-known Pontii family, consisting of Samnite plebeians. The Samnites were a tribe from Southern Italy who spoke the Oscan language, which is now extinct. After the Samnite Wars (341–290 BC), the Pontii family moved to Rome with the other Samnites. Therefore, the last name Pontii derives from the Samnite first name Pontius , which corresponds to the Latin word pons , meaning "bridge." Pilate was an equestrian , a knight of the mid-level Roman nobility. He served as the prefect of Judea Province from approximately AD 26 to 36, appointed by the emperor Tiberius (r. AD 14–37). In 1961, Italian archaeologist Antonio Frova (1914–2007) discovered a piece of limestone partially inscribed with the name and title of Pontius Pilate during an excavation in Caesarea Maritima. It reads, "To the Divine Augustus [this] Tiberium, Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judea, has dedicated" (Latin: Dis Augustus Tiberiéum, Pontius Pilatus, Praefectus Iudaeae, fecit dedicavit ). This inscription makes sense, given that Caesarea Maritima was the Roman administrative capital of Judea while the Jews kept their headquarters in Jerusalem. This artifact reveals that Pilate built a Tiberium , a pagan temple, to honor the emperor Tiberius. ​ B. R. Burton Pilate in History​ ​ The Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed include statements that Pontius Pilate was involved in the crucifixion of Jesus ( see " Confessions of Faith "). This mention shows that the early church believed it was essential to bridge their faith with the "historical Jesus." It was Pilate who ruled over Jesus' trial and then ordered his crucifixion. However, this was not his first run-in with the Jews. There were two incidents before Jesus' ministry in which Pilate angered the Jews over their religious customs. Around AD 26, Pilate reassigned his soldiers from Caesarea Maritima to Jerusalem for the winter. When the Roman army marched into the city, they carried military standards with Tiberius' image on them (Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 18.3 ; Wars of the Jews 2.9 ; Philo, Embassy to Gaius 39–40 )—a deliberate violation of the Law of Moses' ban on graven images ( Exod. 20:4 ). The Jews protested in the Caesarea Maritima stadium. Pilate responded by having his soldiers cordon off the venue and threatening to massacre them with swords. However, Pilate withdrew his troops when the Jewish protesters obstinately showed no fear of death. In his On the Embassy to Gaius , Philo of Alexandria (c. 15 BC–c. AD 50) described Pilate this way: When Pilate, a man of inflexible, stubborn, and cruel disposition, obstinately refused, they shouted: "Do not cause a revolt! Do not cause a war! Do not break the peace! Disrespect done to our ancient laws brings no honor to the emperor. Do not make Tiberius an excuse for insulting our nation. He does not want any of our traditions done away with. If you say he does, show us some decree or letter so that we may cease troubling you and appeal to our master using an embassy." This last remark exasperated Pilate most of all, for he was afraid that if they sent an embassy, they would bring accusations against the rest of his administration as well, specifying in detail his venality, his violence, his thefts, his assaults, his abusive behavior, his frequent executions of untried prisoners, and his endless savage ferocity. In the second incident, around AD 28, Pilate used funds from the temple treasury to build an aqueduct into Jerusalem—another act of sacrilege against the Law ( Exod. 30:11–16 ). The local Jewish residents protested this abuse of sacred money in pagan hands at the Praetorium palace. Pilate had his soldiers wear civilian clothes to blend in with the Jewish protesters. Once he ordered the gates to be locked, the soldiers killed nearly all of them with weapons ( Antiquities of the Jews 18.3 ; Wars of the Jews 2.9 ). These two episodes showed Pilate's unbridled cruelty and violence. ​ Lucius Vitellius (r. AD 34, 43, and 47), the legate of Syria province, removed Pilate from office and sent him back to Rome after violently crushing a Samaritan insurgency at Mount Gerizim. Pilate was supposed to stand before Tiberius to answer for this crime. However, Tiberius died before his return ( Antiquities of the Jews 18.4 ). ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Pilate in the Bible In his gospel account, Luke mentions, "Now there were some present at that time who told Jesus about the Galileans whose blood Pilate had mixed with their sacrifices" ( Luke 13:1 ). However, many churchgoers tend to view Pontius Pilate with more sympathy when reading the gospels. When he tried Jesus, Pilate had him flogged thirty-nine times with rods over his naked body ( Luke 23:16 , 22 ; John 19:1 ). Though this was in line with the Law of Moses ( Deut. 25:3 ), the Roman soldiers added their forms of punishment and mockery. They ridiculed Jesus as the "king of the Jews," giving him a crown of thorns and the purple robe of Roman nobility ( Matt. 27:29 ; Mark 15:18 ; John 19:2–4 ). Often, we only consider the wicked deeds of the Sanhedrin—the supreme court of Israel for all religious and sociopolitical matters—that targeted Jesus. Yet, the Roman governor Pontius Pilate and his array of bloodthirsty Roman troops were just as responsible for Jesus' death as the Jews were. In truth, all humans—both Jew and Gentile—are rebel sinners who share legal blame for the crucifixion ( Rom. 3:22–23 ). When we use antisemitic talking points in saying, "The Jews killed Christ," we contradict God's will to save us from sin and death through Jesus' atonement. ​ The passage gives our Jewish brethren the most grief: "When Pilate saw that he was getting nowhere, but that instead an uproar was starting, he took water and washed his hands in front of the crowd. 'I am innocent of this man's blood,' he said. 'It is your responsibility!' All the people answered, "His blood is on us and on our children!'" ( Matt. 27:24–25 ). Throughout our church history, many people claiming the name of Jesus—himself a Jew—have used this exchange to justify their verbal abuse of Jews as "Christ-killers." Even when the American director Mel Gibson (b. 1956) filmed The Passion of the Christ (2004), many Jewish anti-defamation groups asked him to remove this line. However, Gibson kept it in the Aramaic soundtrack but removed it from the subtitle translation. In the New Testament context, the crowd was willing to face the national consequences of defying the Roman governor, Pilate, rather than the spiritual result of opposing God. About forty years later, in AD 70, the Romans did come, laying siege to Jerusalem and destroying the temple ( Matt. 24:1–2 ; Mark 13:1–2 ; Luke 21:5–6 ). Caiaphas, the High Priest of Israel, also felt this sentiment: "You know nothing at all! You do not realize that it is better for you that one man die for the people than that the whole nation perish" ( John 11:49–50 ; cf. John 18:14 ). Simply put, the Jerusalem crowd was willing to take responsibility for the death of Jesus in contrast to Pilate's shirking of it. Matthew's point was to make this contrast, not to imply some generational curse on all Jews for all time ( see " Auschwitz & Biblical Studies "). ​ To be sure, even the Romans knew Pilate was culpable for Jesus' death. The Roman historian Tacitus (AD 56–c. 120), who was certainly no friend of Christianity, wrote: ​Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christ, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judea, the first source of the evil but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city as of hatred against humankind ( Annals 15.44 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion Pontius Pilate was a key figure in ancient Roman history, especially in Judea. He was born into the Pontii family, a group from southern Italy of Samnite descent. Pilate was part of the equestrian class, a social group situated just below the senators in Roman society. His position in this class helped him rise to become Judea's prefect, or governor, under the emperor Tiberius. A significant archaeological find in Caesarea Maritima, an ancient city, has revealed an inscription with the name and title of Pilate. The inscription mentions Pilate dedicating a temple to the emperor Tiberius, highlighting his role as a Roman official responsible for maintaining order and enforcing Roman law in Judea, a region with diverse cultures and religions. Pontius Pilate's actions, especially his role in the trial and crucifixion of Jesus, have sparked much debate among historians and religious scholars. However, the inscription found in Caesarea Maritima helps us understand some of the practical challenges Pilate faced as the governor of Judea. By building a Tiberium, a temple dedicated to the emperor Tiberius, Pilate demonstrated his ability to balance Roman authority with the religious sentiments of the Jewish people. Pilate's story reflects the complicated mix of power, politics, and religion in the ancient world. His legacy, shaped by historical writings and archaeological discoveries, draws interest from scholars and people curious about Roman rule in Judea. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you passed over your firstborn and delivered us from death. You led us in the pillar of cloud, but we have shown you into the judgment hall of Pilate. You struck down kings for our sake; you gave us a royal inheritance, but we have crowned your head with thorns. You opened the rock and offered us to drink from the water of life, but we have opened your side with a spear. You lifted us with great power, but we have raised you on the cross. We, your people—both Jew and Gentile alike—have done this to you. We have wearied you. We have testified against you. Almighty God, the Ancient of Days, have mercy upon us. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Bates, Stephen, and John Hooper. "Gibson Film Ignores Vow to Remove Blood Libel." The Guardian . February 27, 2004. link . Bond, Helen K. Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation . Edited by Richard Bauckham. Monograph Series, no. 100. Society for New Testament Studies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Butcher, Kevin. "The Strange Christian Afterlife of Pontius Pilate." History Today. March 25, 2016. link . ​ Carter, Warren. "Pontius Pilate." Bible Odyssey. Society of Biblical Literature. link . ⸻. Pontius Pilate: Portraits of a Roman Governor . Collegeville: Liturgical, 2003. ​ Demandt, Alexander. Pontius Pilatus . Munich, Germany: Beck, 2012. ​ Jarus, Owen. "Who Was Pontius Pilate?" Live Science. March 25, 2019. link . Josephus. The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Version . Translated by William Whiston. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987. Klein, Christopher. "Why Did Pontius Pilate Have Jesus Executed?" History. March 18, 2024. link . ​ Lendering, Jona. "Lucius Vitellius." Livius. August 5, 2020. link . ​ ⸻. "Pontius Pilate." April 16, 2020. link . ​ Lockshin, Martin. "Who Killed Jesus? From the Gospels to Nostra Aetate , How Jews Were Accused of Deicide." My Jewish Learning. link . ​ Maier, Paul L. Pontius Pilate: A Novel . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2014. ​​ Philo. The Works of Philo Judaeus . Translated by C. D. Yonge. London: Bohn, 1890. Schoenherr, Neil. "Romans Are to Blame for the Death of Jesus." The Source. Washington University in St. Louis. February 18, 2004. link . Strickland, Bill, ed. "Pontius Pilate." Biography. June 13, 2022. link . Tacitus. Complete Works of Tacitus . Translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb. New York: Random House, 1942. ​ Windle, Bryan. "Pontius Pilate: An Archaeological Biography." Bible Archaeology Report (blog). October 11, 2019. link .

Courtesy of Affirm Films Introduction Priscilla of Rome (Greek: Priskila tis Rōmis ) was born circa AD 1 (3761–3762 in the Hebrew calendar) in the Roman province of Italy. Her husband,  Aquila  (Greek:  Akouila tou Pontou ), was born around the same time but in the Roman province of Bithynia and Pontus. They were Jewish Christians and dear friends to Paul of Tarsus during his missionary journeys. Priscilla is a Latin name and a diminutive of Prisca , meaning "ancient." Luke of Antioch identified Aquila—his name deriving from the Latin word for "eagle"—as being from the Pontus region on the Euxine Sea (now the Black Sea). After moving to Rome, he met his wife, Priscilla, and they worked as tentmakers. However, the emperor Claudius (10 BC–AD 54) expelled the Jews from the city of Rome around AD 49, an event noted by both Scripture and the Roman historian Suetonius (AD 69–c. 122) ( Acts 18:2 ; cf. Claudius 25.4 ). Claudius blamed the Christians for disturbing the peace, though the Romans still considered Jesus' followers a sect of Judaism. Courtesy of Affirm Films Priscilla & Aquila in Ministry ​ Priscilla and Aquila were both teachers in the first-century church. When they saw a man named Apollos ministering publicly about Jesus, Priscilla and Aquila "invited him to their home and explained to him the way of God more adequately" ( Acts 18:26 ). Apollos did not yet receive much less know about baptism in Jesus, only that of John the Baptist ( Acts 18:25 ). Apollos was originally a Jew from Alexandria, a city well-known for its library and schools of philosophy. Aquila and Priscilla, being Jewish, were better acquainted with Old Testament symbolism, especially as friends of Paul, a former Pharisee. They often accompanied him throughout the Mediterranean ( Rom. 16:3 ; 1 Cor. 16:19 ; 2 Tim. 4:19 ). ​ Priscilla and Aquila were both leaders of a house church in Ephesus. The New International Version (NIV) correctly renders the Greek verb proslambanō ( G4355 ) as "invited him to their home" in Acts 18:26 . In contrast, other versions, such as the English Standard Version (ESV) translates proslambanō as "took aside" ( Acts 18:26 ESV). The preposition of pros- ( G4314 ) intensifies the verb lambanō ( G2983 , "to lay ahold of with initiative"), therefore making proslambanō an aggressive reception of another person with strong personal interest. This same verb was used by Matthew when Simon Peter "took him aside" and rebuked Jesus for predicting his death ( Matt. 16:22 ). However, both Luke and Paul used proslambanō in the context of Mediterranean hospitality. Consider these verses: ​ The islanders showed us unusual kindness. They built a fire and welcomed us all because it was raining and cold ( Acts 28:2 ). So if you consider me a partner, welcome him as you would welcome me ( Phlm. 1:17 ). ​ So, when Luke used the verb proslambanō , he attested that Aquila and Priscilla were leaders of a church that met in their home in Ephesus. He also mentioned that Apollos taught advanced theology, not just basic catechism. Furthermore, Luke's choice of language implies a recognition of Aquila and Priscilla's significant role within the early Christian community, highlighting their authority and influence. This depiction highlights the dynamic nature of early Christian gatherings, where individuals like Apollos were nurtured in a rich theological environment cultivated by knowledgeable leaders such as Aquila and Priscilla. Courtesy of Affirm Films Conclusion Priscilla and Aquila were a couple who played an essential role in early Christianity. They came from different places but shared a strong faith. They worked closely with the apostle Paul and helped spread the Christian message. Even after being forced to leave Rome because of political issues, they continued to teach and support other Christians. Their dedication to their faith and their work in helping others shows the importance of community, learning, and service in the early church. Their example inspires Christians today to be welcoming, knowledgeable, and helpful in their faith. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; by the example of your servants, spur us on to a better life so that we, who celebrate the memory of Priscilla and Aquila, may also imitate their deeds without ceasing; through our Lord Jesus Christ, your Son, who lives and reigns with you in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Bauer, Walter. A Greek–English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature . 3rd ed. Revised and edited by F. W Danker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. ​ Henderson, Silas. "Saint of the Day: Prisca and Aquila." Aleteia. July 8, 2024. link . ​ Houdmann, S. Michael. "Who Was Apollos?" Got Questions. January 4, 2022. link . ​ Mowczko, Margaret. "At Home with Priscilla and Aquila." Marg Mowczko (blog). November 11, 2015. link . Suetonius. "The Life of Claudius 25." Translated by J. C. Rolfe. Lexundria. link . Witherington, Ben, III. Priscilla: The Life of an Early Christian . Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2019.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Simon son of Jonah (Hebrew: Shimon bar Yonah , Shimon Kepha —Greek: Simо̄n Petros ) was born circa AD 1 (3761–3762 in the Hebrew calendar) in the Roman district of Gaulanitis. He is better known as Peter (Greek: Petros ; G4074 ), a name that Jesus gave him as a ministry title ( Matt. 16:18 ). Simon was a fisherman from Bethsaida ( John 1:44 ), a Jewish fishing village located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee. As his name implied, his father was either named Jonah ( Matt. 16:17 ) or John ( John 1:42 , 21:15–17 ), as the New Testament authors used both—probably because they share the same Hebrew consonants (יוחנן‬ Yochanan , H3110 ; ​יונה Yonah , H3123 ). Andrew was his brother, with whom he partnered in a fishing business at Capernaum alongside the Zebedee brothers—James and John ( Luke 5:10 ). Peter was probably from a lower-middle-class background, equivalent to a blue-collar worker in today's world. This background often got him in trouble with Jesus and the Judean authorities. Peter was impulsive, a "shoot first, ask questions later" kind of man. If the contemporary saying, "It's better to beg for forgiveness than to ask for permission," were a first-century Galilean one, Peter certainly would have exemplified it. Although Jesus often referred to the Pharisees and other religious leaders as "vipers" ( Matt. 12:34 , 23:33 ) or "thieves" ( John 10:8–10 ), he once rebuked Peter by calling him "Satan!" ( Matt. 16:23 ). It was Peter who 1) took his eyes off Jesus while they walked on the Sea of Galilee and fell in ( Matt. 14:28–31 ), 2) denied Jesus three times ( Matt. 26:33–35 ; Mark 14:29–31 ; Luke 22:33–34 ; John 13:36–38 ), 3) cut off the ear of Malchus—a slave to Caiaphas, the high priest—during Jesus' arrest ( John 18:10–11 ), and 4) who eagerly responded to questions, usually with the wrong answer ( Mark 9:5–6 ; Luke 9:33 ). However, Peter's story throughout the New Testament is one of God's mercy, the transition from a hotheaded, provincial fisherman to the "rock of the church." Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com A Galilean Accent ​ Other than his job as a fisherman, the other clue that Peter was a backwater hick was his Galilean accent, for which he was belittled during his denial of Jesus at Jerusalem ( Matt. 26:73 ). This accent probably reflected the differences between the northern (Ephraim) and southern (Judah) kingdoms after David's reign ( 1 Kgs. 12:19 ). The northerners were geographically and culturally removed from Jerusalem, the cosmopolitan center of Israel to the south. Fishing was a significant part of life in the towns bordering the Sea of Galilee, a fact that is even reflected in modern archaeology through the discovery of discarded fish bones. Many first-century Jews widely derided the Galilean accent, and even the authors of the Talmud wrote: ​ A certain Galilean went around saying . . . "Who has amar ? Who has amar ?" They said to him, "You Galilean fool, do you mean a donkey ( chamor ; H2543 ) for riding, wine ( chamar ; H2562 ) for drinking, wool ( amar ; H6015 ) for clothing, or a lamb ( imar ; H563 ) for slaughtering?" ( Eruvin 53b.6 ). They could not make out what the man was asking because Galileans typically slurred the guttural vowels of Hebrew. This habit is not unlike how modern English speakers often deride accents from the American South or the cockney from the East End of London. Matthew's narrative purpose in mentioning Peter's accent was to mark the transition from a fisherman to a church leader. He denied Jesus to save his life, going back to the fishing business. Peter assumed that Jesus' ministry ended with his crucifixion, perhaps too readily dismissing him as another false messiah. Although he was the first apostle to see the empty tomb, Peter was amazed, yet he returned home nonetheless ( Luke 24 ;  John 20:4 ). Jesus appeared to Peter soon after the resurrection while he was fishing. Jesus reenacted the first time he called Peter at the Sea of Galilee, once again challenging him to net a large number of fish in broad daylight—153, to be exact. In the following conversation, Jesus asked Peter three times, "Do you love me more than these?" for each of his denials. In the first two questions, Jesus used the verb  agapaō  ( G25 ), and then concluded with phileō ( G5368 ). Peter was still unsure of what he had gotten himself into, so he responded to Jesus' query of steadfast love with the intent of mere friendship. Yet, Jesus responded by describing Peter's martyrdom, knowing the apostle would eventually prove his undying love for God ( John 21:1–19 ). He would go on to be the church's leading voice, using his Galilean accent to proclaim this bedrock truth: Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of the living God ( Matt. 16:16 ). Whereas the Judean religious leaders denied the Holy One of Israel could derive from Galilee ( John 7:52 ), Peter knew better. The prophet Isaiah once wrote: Nevertheless, there will be no more gloom for those who were in distress. In the past he humbled the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, but in the future he will honor Galilee of the nations, by the Way of the Sea, beyond the Jordan—The people walking in darkness have seen a great light; on those living in the land of deep darkness a light has dawned​ ( Isa. 9:1–2 ; cf. Matt. 4:14–15 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Peter: Like a Rock ​ Peter's declaration to Jesus, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God," at Caesarea Philippi is the most vital creed for the Christian church. It underlies all the historical symbols of Nicaea and Chalcedon ( see  " Confessions of Faith "), as well as all current statements of belief. Peter's confession about Jesus' identity was so foundational that he named Simon the "rock" upon which he would build his church. At this point in the narrative, Peter still needs to understand the complexity of what Jesus said. Shortly after Peter made the bold proclamation, Jesus rebuked him as "Satan" for trying to stop his death on the cross. When Jesus called Simon the "rock," he was probably speaking Aramaic, using the words Kephas ( G2786 ) and keph ( H3710 ) as both his new ministry title and name ( Matt. 16:13–20 ). The only difference between the Greek words Petros ( G4074 ) and petra ( G4073 ) is grammatical gender, with no implications for theological meaning. The first time Peter became the "rock" of the church was on Pentecost when the Holy Spirit encouraged him and the other apostles to tell the good news of Jesus. Peter took charge when Jews from all over the Mediterranean and the Near East asked about their newfound ability to speak various languages. Without the benefit of a theology degree ( Acts 4:13 ), Peter invoked the prophets Joel and David to demonstrate how even the Hebrew scriptures predicted the Messiah and the dispensing of spiritual gifts. He spoke with such authority that 3,000 people felt convicted and were immediately baptized that day ( Acts 2:1–41 ). In his ministry, Peter healed many individuals with disabilities ( Acts 3:1 , 5:15 , 9:32 ), boldly testified about Jesus to the religious authorities of Jerusalem ( Acts 4:1–22 ), and summoned God's judgment on Ananias and Sapphira ( Acts 5:1–11 ) for their deceit. He even gave the Holy Spirit through the laying on of hands ( Acts 8:17 ) and resurrected a disciple named Tabitha from the dead ( Acts 9:36 ). ​ Despite Peter's success as an apostle, he still had some important lessons to learn. At first, he only ministered to Jews, thinking God still concerned himself with Israel. In a dream, God revealed a sheet to Peter to observe, filled with non-kosher animals, including "four-footed animals, as well as reptiles and birds" ( Acts 10:12 ). The four corners alluded to the four corners of the earth. However, God was not teaching Peter primarily about kosher foods, but rather his concern for all people, not only the Jews. Peter's meeting with Cornelius affirmed that a Gentile, such as a Roman centurion, could be baptized ( Acts 10 ). Peter's dream was not only a correction of his latent bigotry stemming from his Galilean upbringing but also a present vocation to Gentiles and a future omen of his death in Rome—the capital of the Gentile world. In the meantime, Peter traveled throughout the Levant region with his wife ( Mark 1:30 ; 1 Cor. 9:5 ) and led the wholesale conversions of Judea, Samaria, and the Gentiles. As the leader of the Judaic wing of the early church, Peter met with James and Paul of Tarsus at the Council of Jerusalem about AD 50 ( Acts 15:1–21 ). He supported the motion that Christian Gentiles should not be required to observe the Law of Moses, although other Jewish believers continued to observe it. This problem would arise again in Antioch, where Paul confronted Peter over his eating non-kosher meals with Gentiles, although pretending to faithfully observe the dietary laws around Jewish Christians ( Gal. 2:11–14 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Martyrdom in Rome ​ Peter died in Rome, but not according to the pious fiction commonly believed. The scriptures do not mention the details of the apostle's death. When Jesus restored Peter, he warned him: Very truly I tell you, when you were younger you dressed yourself and went where you wanted; but when you are old you will stretch out your hands, and someone else will dress you and lead you where you do not want to go ( John 21:18 ). ​ The legends of Peter being crucified upside down stem from accounts dating back to the close of the second century, or almost the beginning of the third century. This tradition leaves a gap of nearly 100 years after Peter's death. It is essential to recognize that historical narratives evolve and are influenced by cultural, religious, and political factors. Jesus' reference to a belt and stretched-out hands has nothing to do with crucifixion, but being burned alive. Peter's death occurred after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, when the emperor Nero (r. AD 54–68) killed many Christians by sowing them into animal skins for hungry dogs or lighting them as torches for entertainment. When the Romans crucified their victims, they stripped them naked to maximize their shame. This custom was also applied to Jesus, as the gospels testify ( Matt. 27:35 ; Mark 15:24 ; Luke 23:34 ; John 19:24 ). However, Peter's death included clothing and a belt, which the Roman soldiers doused in flammable chemicals for immolation. The Roman historian Tacitus (AD 56–c. 120) described this method when writing about the Great Fire: Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christ, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judea, the first source of the evil but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city as of hatred against humankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt to serve as a nightly illumination when daylight had expired. Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle ( Annals 15.44 ). ​ The only record of Peter's martyrdom was by Clement of Rome (c. AD 30–c. 100): "Let us take the noble examples furnished in our generation. Through envy and jealousy, the greatest and most righteous pillars have been persecuted and put to death . . . Peter, through unrighteous envy, endured not one or two, but numerous labors and when he had at length suffered martyrdom, departed to the place of glory due to him" ( 1 Clem. 5:5 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion Peter was a pivotal figure in the early church. Originally a fisherman from Galilee, Peter was known for his strong emotions and impulsive actions. He sometimes showed great faith but struggled with doubt and even denied knowing Jesus. Despite his weaknesses, Peter's journey was one of growth and learning. When he declared that Jesus was the Messiah, Jesus called this confession "the rock" on which the church would be built. Peter's life shows how faith and God's grace can transform and guide people toward a greater purpose. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe, who inspired Simon Peter, first among the apostles, to confess Jesus as Messiah and Son of the living God: Keep your church steadfast upon the rock of this faith, that in unity and peace, we may proclaim the one truth and follow the one Lord, our Savior Jesus the Messiah; who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Bockmuehl, Markus. The Remembered Peter: In Ancient Reception and Modern Debate . Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2010. ⸻. Simon Peter in Scripture and Memory: The New Testament Apostle in the Early Church . Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012. ​ Bond, Helen K., and Larry W. Hurtado, eds. Peter in Early Christianity . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015. ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Clement of Rome. "The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians." In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 1: The Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus . Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1885. Evans, Craig A. Matthew . New Cambridge Bible Commentary. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.​ Pfister, Samuel DeWitt. "Where Is Biblical Bethsaida?" Biblical Archaeology Society. November 7, 2024. link . ​ Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020. Tacitus. Complete Works of Tacitus . Translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb. New York: Random House, 1942. ​ Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Simon the Zealot (Hebrew: Shimon ha-Kanai —Greek: Simо̄n ho Zēlōtēs , Simо̄n ho Kananaios ) was born circa AD 10 (3770–3771 in the Hebrew calendar) in the Roman district of Galilee. The synoptic gospel writers Matthew, Mark, and Luke variously called him "Simon the Zealot" ( Luke 6:15 ; Acts 1:13 ) or "Simon the Cananaean" ( Matt. 10:4 ; Mark 3:18 ). In the first century, both the terms "Zealot" and "Cananaean" synonymously referred to the Zealots, a violent group of Jewish revolutionaries who tried to overthrow the imperial rule of Judea and Galilee in the First Judeo–Roman War between AD 66–70. The Hebrew word for "Zealot" is Kanai ( H7067 ), which Matthew and Mark transliterated into Greek as Kananaios ( G2581 ). They kept the original Hebrew noun but wrote it out with Greek letters. Some translations, such as the King James Version (KJV), mistakenly render Kananaios as "Canaanite," a demonym that refers to the ancient pagan nation of Canaan before the Israelite conquest of the Promised Land ( Josh. 14:1 ). The Anglican translators of the KJV used the Vulgate, the "Common Bible" (Latin: Biblia Vulgata ) single-handedly written by Jerome of Stridon (c. 347–c. 419), who misread Kananaios to imply someone from the Galilean village of Cana. The KJV scholars, in turn, mistook Jerome's error to mean "Canaanite" because they prioritized Latin manuscripts over the earlier Greek ones. (After the English Reformation ended in 1559, the Anglicans still sided with the Roman Catholics in their traditional rivalry with the Greek Orthodox.) However, the mistake was easy to make, considering how the demonym  Chananaios  ( G5478 , "Canaanite," Χαναναῖος) resembles  Kananaios  (Καναναῖος) in the New Testament manuscripts. That said, we know that Jesus chose twelve apostles to match typologically with the twelve tribes of Israel, meaning they were all Jews ( Matt. 19:28 ). Simon was undoubtedly a Jewish man and a zealously nationalistic one at that! Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Simon: Zealous for Jesus Simon and Matthew of Capernaum were opposites: a Zealot who planned insurgencies against the Romans and a government contractor who collected taxes for the Romans. Although they were both Jewish, their political differences were far broader than those of liberals and conservatives today. Jesus chose Simon and Matthew as apostles to counterbalance each other and show that his teaching was apolitical. The Zealots were Jewish insurgents who sought to liberate Judea and Galilee from the Roman Empire. They were armed militia, augmented by a more radical wing called "Daggermen" (Latin: Sicarii ), who assassinated their enemies in broad daylight with short daggers hidden in their clothes. Simon was probably not one of these terrorists, but a moderate who believed in the Zealot motto: "No king but Messiah, no tax but the temple, no friend but the Zealot." Simon and Matthew's inclusion among Jesus' apostles underscored his message of inclusion and reconciliation. Despite their starkly contrasting backgrounds and political ideologies, Jesus saw potential in both men to contribute to his mission in unique ways. With his fervent zeal for the liberation of his people, Simon embodied the longing for political freedom and the pursuit of justice. On the other hand, Matthew's experience as a tax collector embodied the necessity for mercy, forgiveness, and breaking down societal barriers. Their presence within the group of apostles served as a living demonstration of Jesus' teachings on love, forgiveness, and the transcendence of earthly divisions. It showcased that he calls everyone to unity despite their differences within God's kingdom. True transformation comes not through political upheaval but spiritual renewal and reconciliation with God. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com A Switch in Allegiance & Zeal Perhaps this was why Simon first found Jesus' ministry in Galilee appealing, hoping Jesus would overthrow the Romans and reign as the Messiah. However, Simon stayed on even when Jesus taught lessons that contradicted Zealot ideology: "Give back to Caesar what is Caesar's and to God what is God's" ( Mark 12:17 )—as opposed to the Zealot ideology of "No king but Messiah, no tax but the temple." Simon remained with Jesus even after he warned about the temple's destruction ( Matt 24:1–2 ; Luke 21:5–6 ), which happened in AD 70 when the Romans seized Jerusalem from the Zealots and routed them. Eusebius of Caesarea (260–340) noted that the Jewish Christians fled to Pella, a village east of the Jordan River, in AD 66 because they refused to fight in the war ( Church History 3.5 ). By this time, Simon found a different cause to be zealous: the good news of Jesus. Instead of fuming about paying taxes to Caesar with a coin bearing his graven image, Simon realized he was made in God's image that no human authority could own. He accepted no king but Christ, no temple but the body, and no friend but the Christian ( John 2:21 ; 1 Cor. 6:19 ; 2 Cor. 6:14 ; Phil. 2:9–11 ). Simon's transformation from a fervent Zealot to a zealous follower of Jesus exemplified the profound impact of encountering the teachings and person of Christ. His journey reflects a shift from seeking temporal power and political revolution to embracing a deeper understanding of spiritual truth and the kingdom of God. Simon's allegiance shifted from the earthly to the heavenly kingdom, where Christ reigns as the true and eternal King. This transformation did not negate his passion or zeal. Still, it redirected it toward a higher purpose—to proclaim the good news of salvation and to live out the principles of love, justice, and reconciliation that Jesus taught. Through Simon's journey, we see the transformative power of encountering Jesus, leading to a radical reorientation of one's priorities and allegiances. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion Simon the Zealot was a key figure in the group of apostles who followed Jesus Christ. Born during the Roman occupation of Galilee, Simon's role as a Zealot shows his strong support for Jewish independence and his desire to resist Roman rule. Despite this, Jesus chose Simon as one of his apostles, highlighting his commitment to Israel's spiritual freedom and restoration. Simon's place among the twelve apostles demonstrates that Jesus sought to include individuals from diverse backgrounds and perspectives in his inner circle. By examining Simon's background and his time, we can gain a deeper understanding of the diverse beliefs and perspectives held by Jesus' followers. Simon's passion for Jewish independence reminds us that faith and politics were deeply connected in first-century Judea. Ultimately, Simon's life encourages us to reflect on the complexities of following Jesus and how faith, culture, and justice are interconnected. As we study the scriptures, we should appreciate the diversity of voices in the Bible and recognize how figures like Simon helped shape Christian history. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; grant that as your apostle Simon was faithful and zealous in his mission, so we may with ardent devotion make known the love and mercy of our Lord and Savior Jesus the Messiah; who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006.​ ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Eusebius. "The Church History of Eusebius." Translated by Arthur Cushman McGiffert. In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Ser. 2, Vol. 1: Eusebius Pamphilus: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine . Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1890. Ferguson, Everett. "Eusebius of Caesarea." Christian History 72 (2001). link . ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Kalas, J. Ellsworth. The Thirteen Apostles . Nashville: Abingdon, 2012. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. ​ Notley, R. Steven. "'Give Unto Caesar:' Jesus, the Zealots, and the Imago Dei." Jerusalem Perspective . January 1, 2004. link . ​ Wright, N. T. How God Became King: The Forgotten Story of the Gospels . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016. ⸻. Paul: In Fresh Perspective . Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005.

Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Introduction Timothy of Lystra (Greek: Timotheos tis Lustras ) was born circa AD 20 (3780–3781 in the Hebrew calendar) in the Roman province of Cappadocia. He was a Christian Gentile from the city of Lystra in the region of Lycaonia. Timothy was the son of a Greek pagan man. However, his mother was a Jewish woman named Eunice who, with her mother Lois, was known for her sincere faith ( 2 Tim. 1:5 ). The Greek name Timotheos ( G5095 ) means "honor of God" ( timē ; G5092 ; Theos , G2316 ). Timothy knew the Old Testament scriptures very well from an early age, which led him to salvation through faith in Christ Jesus ( 2 Tim. 3:15 ). ​ Timothy was a close friend of the apostle Paul and appears as his co-author in the following letters: 2 Corinthians, Philippians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon. In his letter to the church of Philippi, Paul commended Timothy: "I have no one else like him . . . you know that Timothy has proved himself, because as a son with his father he has served with me in the work of the gospel" ( Phil. 2:20–22 ). ​ Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Timothy: In the Honor of God ​ In AD 52, the Christian faith arrived in Timothy's native Lystra when Paul healed a disabled man, leading many to believe his teaching ( Acts 14:8–19 ). When Paul returned to the city a few years later with Silas, Timothy was already a respected member of the Lystra and Iconium churches. Because his father was a Gentile, Timothy had not been circumcised on the eighth day according to the Law of Moses ( Lev. 12:2–4 ). So, Paul had Timothy circumcised to ensure that the Jews they would evangelize could accept him as one of their own ( Acts 16:1–3 ). However, Paul's decision regarding Timothy did not supersede the Council of Jerusalem, circa AD 50, when Jesus' brother James ruled that Christian Gentiles did not have to be circumcised ( Acts 15:1–35 ). Timothy joined Paul and Silas on their journey to Macedonia in AD 52. He first learned as a disciple but quickly graduated to become Paul's co-worker in the gospel. Paul described Timothy as timid ( 1 Cor. 16:10 ). He was often sick, so Paul encouraged him to drink some wine for his stomach ( 1 Tim. 5:23 ). ​ When Paul wrote his letter to the Romans from Corinth during the winter of AD 57, Timothy was also present ( Rom. 16:21 ). He then joined Paul in Macedonia around Passover in AD 58, before sailing to Troas ( Acts 20:3–6 ). In AD 64, Paul laid hands on Timothy, appointing him to lead the church of Ephesus as its overseer ( episkopos ; G1985 , "bishop;" cf. 1 Tim 1:3 , 4:14 ). That same year, Paul was in prison at Caesarea Maritima, awaiting his trial before the emperor Nero (AD 37–68) in Rome. He called for his faithful co-worker, Timothy, one last time. Paul's first letter to Timothy was about the roles and responsibilities of church leadership. However, the second letter was Paul's last will: For I am already being poured out like a drink offering, and the time for my departure is near. I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith. Now there is in store for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, will award to me on that day—and not only to me, but also to all who have longed for his appearing. . . . I sent Tychicus to Ephesus. When you come, bring the cloak that I left with Carpus at Troas, and my scrolls, especially the parchments ( 2 Tim. 4:6–8 , 12–13 ). According to the writer of Hebrews, Timothy was jailed at least once ( Heb. 13:23 ) . Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Conclusion Timothy was a vital leader in the early church, renowned for his unwavering faith and unwavering dedication. Although his family had different religious backgrounds, his mother, Eunice, and grandmother, Lois, taught him the scriptures from a young age. His close relationship with the apostle Paul helped shape his role in spreading the message of Jesus. Timothy worked alongside Paul and was even mentioned in letters written to early Christian communities. Paul praised Timothy for his kindness, hard work, and commitment to sharing the gospel. Timothy's name means "honor of God," and his life reflected this meaning. His legacy continues to inspire people through the letters that bear his name and the example he set as a faithful servant of God. His story reminds us of the power of faith and how one person's dedication can have a profound impact on the world. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you called your servant Timothy to preach the gospel to the people of Macedonia, Greece, and Asia. Raise in this and every land evangelists and heralds of your kingdom that your church may proclaim the unsearchable riches of our Savior Jesus Christ, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Graves, Dan. "Who Was Timothy in the Bible? How Did He Help Paul?" Christianity.com. April 23, 2024. link . Houdmann, S. Michael. "Who Was Timothy in the Bible?" Got Questions. January 4, 2022. link . ​ Rutherfurd, John. "Timothy." Edited by James Orr, John Nuelsen, Edgar Mullins, Morris Evans, and Melvin Grove Kyle. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1939.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Andrew of Bethsaida (Hebrew: Geber ha-Bethtzaidi —Greek: Andreas tis Bēthsaidas ) was born circa AD 8 (3768–3769 in the Hebrew calendar) in the Roman district of Gaulanitis. He was Simon Peter's brother, and they partnered in a fishing business on the Sea of Galilee. Their hometown was Bethsaida ( John 1:44 ). Andrew was the first apostle Jesus called. His name ( G406 ) is undoubtedly Greek, deriving from the noun andros ( G435 , "masculine"). Before Jesus called him, Andrew was a disciple of John the Baptist ( John 1:35–40 ). Andrew's pivotal role in the early stages of Jesus' ministry is often overshadowed by the prominence of his brother, Simon Peter. Yet, Andrew's significance lies in being the first called by Jesus and in his proactive approach to sharing the good news. After encountering Jesus, Andrew wasted no time bringing his brother Simon to meet the Messiah. This momentous event would ultimately transform Simon into Peter, whose confession was the rock on which Jesus built his church. Andrew's willingness to introduce others to Jesus highlights his deep conviction and eagerness to share the life-changing message he had discovered. Andrew appears as a bridge-builder throughout the gospel narratives , connecting individuals to Jesus and facilitating encounters that would shape the course of history. His humble yet impactful ministry serves as a reminder of the profound influence ordinary individuals can have when they respond faithfully to the call of Christ. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Andrew: Bringing People to Jesus ​ The ​four gospel writers do not tell us much about Andrew. However, when they mention him, Andrew always brings people to meet Jesus. Perhaps this is a continuation of the "fishing for people" theme from when Jesus first called him ( Matt. 4:17–19 ; Mark 1:15–17 ). When Jesus fed the crowd of five thousand, Andrew drew his attention to the boy with the fish and loaves of bread ( John 6:5–9 ). Again, Andrew introduced some Greek pilgrims to Jesus during the Passover festival, which led to his crucifixion ( John 12:20–22 ). Mark took the theme of Andrew introducing people to Jesus in his gospel account and made it eschatological. This idea is evident when Jesus foretold the destruction of the Jerusalem temple in AD 70. The other three gospel writers did not mention Andrew in their Olivet Discourse passages ( Matt. 24:1–25:46 ; Mark 13:1–37 ; Luke 21:5–36 ). Just as Andrew was present when Jesus told the Greek men about the kingdom of heaven in terms of a grain of wheat ( John 12:23–24 ), he was also present when Jesus spoke of it in more vivid imagery ( Mark 13:3–8 ). Andrew invites us to meet Christ just like he introduced his brother Peter, the little boy with the baskets, and the Greek men. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion Andrew might not have a significant role in the gospel stories, but his habit of bringing people to Jesus is essential. From the shores of Galilee to the bustling streets of Jerusalem, Andrew demonstrated what it means to be a faithful follower—helping others encounter Jesus in life-changing ways. He introduced his brother, Simon Peter, who assisted with the miracle of feeding thousands and even connected with Greek visitors who were with Jesus. Andrew's actions remind us that we, too, should share the gospel of Jesus with others. Just as he invited people to meet Jesus, we are also called to do the same, both now and as we await Jesus' return. As we think about Andrew's example, may we be inspired to follow in his footsteps, sharing God's love and grace with those around us. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you gave such grace to your apostle Andrew that he readily obeyed the call of your Son, Jesus the Messiah, and brought his brother with him: Give us, whom your holy Word calls, grace to follow him without delay, and to bring those near to us into his gracious presence; who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ Hogue, Wayne A. "Andrew: The Disciple Who Brought People to Jesus." Wesley Center for Applied Theology, Northwest Nazarene University. link . ​ ​​Nelson, Ryan. "Who Was Andrew the Apostle? The Beginner's Guide." OverviewBible. June 17, 2019. link .

Courtesy of Affirm Films Introduction Every organization prohibits harassment and discrimination against people based on race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, socioeconomic status, or gender. At first, protection from harassment and discrimination sounds like a good thing. Yet, there is an implication that someone has harassed or discriminated against another person. These problems occur frequently enough to warrant legal solutions. In the context of Paul's letter to the Galatians, the concept of equal opportunity aligns with the theme of legalism. In other words, God lifted the curse of the Law of Moses to save us from the consequences of sin—especially harassment, discrimination, and inequality ( Gal. 3:10–14 ). Paul's "protected category" clause is not a new idea but a solution to an age-old problem. In the letter to the Galatians, the apostle Paul wrote, "There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus" ( Gal. 3:28 ). This verse is comparable to the anti-harassment and non-discrimination policies we are accustomed to hearing in our time. Paul informed his first-century audience that God does not exclude anyone from salvation through Christ Jesus based on ethnicity, national origin, religion, socioeconomic status, or gender. As Paul wrote elsewhere, there is no favoritism with God ( Rom. 2:11 ) because he made all of us in his image ( Gen. 1:27 ). Unfortunately, many people think they can get away with harassment or discrimination while trying to make God a party to their injustice. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Equal Opportunity "in Christ" As a Jewish man, Paul often heard a prayer common among Jews to this day: "Blessed are you for not having made me a Gentile, a slave, or a woman." This invocation is still present in the synagogue liturgy today, in which the women respond by saying, "Thank you for making me what I am." While the Jewish tradition prioritized separation and distinction, Paul promoted God's new covenant based on unity and mutual respect. Jesus himself responded to a similar type of prayer, connecting it to the Pharisees, "God, I thank you that I am not like other people . . ." ( Luke 18:11 ). Harassment and discrimination are not unique sins to Jewish people, but ordinary to all human beings everywhere. The gospel message that Jesus and his servant Paul taught encompasses all humankind, and it contradicts the conventional human desire to distinguish oneself as superior. In the invocation that Paul corrected, Jewish rabbis believed God had only presented the Law of Moses to Jewish men. In other words, they viewed their prayer not as discriminatory arrogance but as grateful praise to God—he did not assign the Law to Gentiles, slaves, or women. However, Paul scolded these Jewish men for assuming the Law to be a blessing when it was, in fact, a curse. In Galatians 3 , the apostle expressed how Jesus removed the curse of the Law from all people—not just Jewish men—by accepting it on the cross. In his letter to the Romans, Paul wrote how no human being is righteous in God's sight and that all have fallen short of his glory ( Rom. 3:10 ). Nonetheless, he was neither the first nor the only biblical author to proclaim humanity's dreadfulness before God. Psalms 14 and 53 and Ecclesiastes all testify to this unfortunate reality ( Ps. 14:3 , 53:3 ; Eccl. 7:20 , 28 ). The psalmist and the author of Ecclesiastes were Israelites, the predecessors to the Jewish people. They spoke of fellow Israelites as much as they did their pagan neighbors. Not even an Israelite under God's original covenant stood blameless in his sight. In his letter to the Galatians, Paul understood that God's purpose for the old covenant was his own, not something the Jewish people deserved. No human being deserves God's favor and must seek absolution, acknowledging our unworthiness to receive it. Paul addressed the Galatian church because the Jews and their Judaizing companions believed mere mortals could impress God by their merits. God is not astonished whether someone is Jewish or Greek, slave or free, male or female. Instead, he delights in our faith, regardless of our status. Paul composed his letter to the Galatians to correct the Judaizers , those who required Christian Gentiles to follow Jewish rites. However, his message applied to all Christians. The Council of Jerusalem resolved the Judaizing schism that alienated pagan converts from the original Jewish followers of Christ around AD 50 ( Acts 15:1–29 ). Paul had attended this meeting before writing Galatians and had successfully debated in favor of the Gentiles before James, the brother of Jesus himself. Judaizers assumed that Gentiles had to follow Jewish customs as proselytes did. However, they incorrectly believed Jesus had come to vindicate Judaism in the eyes of the world, especially the Roman Empire. Instead, he came not to justify any religion but to establish a kingdom where all people could worship God in spirit and truth. The context of Galatians 3:28 encompasses several immediate concerns that apply to all Christians, regardless of time or place. If the Judaizers wanted to maintain the status quo of ancient Israel, they had to emphasize the roles of Jewish men versus those of Gentiles, slaves, and women. Paul opposed this view because he understood redemption as a gift from God to everyone. However, this problem of harassment and discrimination based on claims of divine favor persists. In many churches today, pastors claim that God speaks only to and through men. Everyone else, in their view, including unordained men, all women, and children, must approach God through a clergyman acting as a mediator. Conversely, Paul's message to the Galatians and the church is that God's salvation is not just a spiritual reality, but a socioeconomic one. How can we, as Christians, invite all people to seek Jesus if we follow our invitation by categorizing them? Paul railed against the Galatians for their double-minded attempts to do just that! Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Differences "in Christ" Even Christians cannot ignore differences between people. It is just as unfair to pretend cultural, ethnic, religious, or socioeconomic divisions do not exist as to prioritize them with ignorance. That is just another form of discrimination, mainly because it diminishes the actual hardships and struggles an individual may have experienced. In his letter to the Galatians, Paul never decried the existence of Jew and Greek, slave and free, or male and female. These separations play a crucial role in his letters to other churches around the Mediterranean. The Romans initially permitted their Judean subjects to practice their traditions in the first century. They even understood how someone's identity affects their psyche. Yes, there is such a thing as false equality, which occurs when one attempts to dismiss actual differences between human beings by using their criteria. This person assumes their criteria are objective, but they base them on subjective values. This problem frequently occurs in missionary activities, where even well-intentioned Christians impose their cultural values on foreign proselytes. Likewise, Paul forbade his Jewish companions from imposing Jewish traditions on Gentiles. When we read Galatians 3:28, we must understand Paul's message in his intended original context. Sometimes, modern readers assume that the "in Christ" clause allows for the removal of all ethnic, religious, socioeconomic, and gender categories. Paul meant that God does not favor any of them, but each still plays a role within the church. As for ethnic, national, or religious differences, each can prove destructive as they are complementary. Christians from around the globe worship God in spirit and truth ( John 4:23–24 ), each in their own musical and artistic offerings. African–American churches remind us of God's deliverance from slavery and oppression, as they have long adopted the Exodus narrative as their history. The underground churches of China provide insight into how early believers survived Roman persecution. Even religious differences allow us to reflect on common truths. Theologians have long recognized the influence of Jewish tradition, Roman jurisprudence, and Greek philosophy on the formulation of Christian doctrine. Even socioeconomic differences benefit Christians, as wealthy patrons can fund the existence of churches while those who survive with less demonstrate that happiness and success do not require material abundance. Gender reflects both the economic and social models of the Trinity ( Eph. 5:21–33 ). In summary, we cannot ignore these categories without misrepresenting God himself. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Baptism "in Christ" Biblical scholars generally consider Galatians 3:28 a first-century baptismal formula Paul incorporated to make a point ( see " Baptism: Immersed in Christ "). From the outset, these believers understood that salvation is accessible to everyone. If baptism is a covenant, then Galatians 3:28 conveys how individuals receive God's condition of equality and opportunity to receive salvation. The "in Christ" clause implies that all believers are united with Jesus. To be one with Jesus is to transcend the material world's arbitrary categories of ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, and gender. The baptismal covenant of Galatians 3:28 symbolizes a return to paradisal creation. Before Adam and Eve's fateful decision to disobey God, humankind had no such barriers. They result from the curse, in which God sentenced Adam to hard labor and Eve to painful childbirth and subjugation. Because the resurrection of Jesus makes all things new, he reverses the curse of Adam and Eve in baptism. As a result, we Christians identify ourselves foremost with Christ, not by race, ethnicity, nationality, socioeconomic status, or gender. Galatians is consistent with Paul's messages to other churches, particularly to the church in Rome. Thus, the baptismal formula of Galatians derives from Paul's view of justification. God does not consider anyone righteous according to their own merits, but rather their race, status, or gender. Justification happens through Jesus, whose righteousness covers the unrighteousness of humankind. Although race, ethnicity, and gender are biological categories, the unequal values that human beings attach make them sinful. Other categories, such as nationality and socioeconomic status, are arbitrary burdens God never intended. Whether natural or unnatural, God loves all people and does not see them for their quality, shameful or otherwise. The righteous are justified by faith through Jesus ( Rom. 5:1 ). In Galatians, Paul emphasized how God saves people by blessing them with faith. The Israelites and their Jewish successors trusted the Law of Moses to keep them. In his epistle to the Romans, Paul indicated how the Jews disbelieved in God because they assumed they could earn his favor through mere obedience. Often, we take Paul's words to mean the Law itself was insufficient in saving those God held to it. However, his argument in Romans is not about the Law's efficacy, but rather Israel's failure to accept God on his terms, rather than theirs ( Rom. 9:30–32 ). This background encouraged Jewish men to thank God for not making them Gentiles, slaves, or women. They assumed God issued his Law to them based on their works, an entitlement by which to rule over Gentiles, slaves, and women. Conversely, we all may trust God and do not require intercessors or representatives. The baptismal covenant of Galatians 3:28 reflected the reality that God views all of us equally and without favoritism. Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Conclusion Complementarian churches find it convenient to restrict Galatians 3:28 to salvation only. They claim no worldly implications on nationality, socioeconomic status, or gender. However, their interpretation relates to contemporary debates about gender roles, which are read anachronistically into the verse. Paul was not responding to the cultural effects of the twentieth-century women's liberation movement, but rather to demographic schisms within the early church. While Paul wrote this verse about mutual groups within the church, he never mandated a hierarchy in his letter to the Galatians. Modern complementarians—those who require strict male and female roles—make the same error as the Jewish men whom Paul addressed. In reality, no one has an equal opportunity for salvation under an oppressor. God had to lead the Israelites from Egypt to save them. Likewise, he must lead us out of the bondage of sin. Ben White Prayer Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; look with compassion on the whole human family; take away the arrogance and hatred that infect our hearts; break down the walls that separate us; unite us in bonds of love; and work through our struggle and confusion to accomplish your purposes on earth; that, in your good time, all nations and races may serve you in harmony around your heavenly throne; through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen. Bibliography Belleville, Linda L., Craig L. Blomberg, Craig S. Keener, and Thomas R. Schreiner. Two Views on Women in Ministry . Counterpoints. Edited by James R. Beck and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Fung, Ronald Y. K. The Epistle to the Galatians . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988. Gundry, Robert H. A Survey of the New Testament . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Horsley, Richard A., ed. Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society . London: Continuum, 1997. Pate, C. Marvin. The End of the Age Has Come: The Theology of Paul . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995. Payne, Philip Barton. Man and Woman, One in Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study of Paul's Letters . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Wright, N. T. Paul and the Faithfulness of God . Minneapolis: Fortress, 2013.