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Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Joseph son of Matthias (Hebrew: Yosef ben Mattityahu —Greek: Iōsēph ton tou Matthaiou ) was born circa AD 37–38 (3797–3799 in the Hebrew calendar) in Jerusalem. His familial lineages were priestly in origin, especially his mother's side, which may have included the Maccabean priests who repelled Antiochus IV Epiphanes (r. 175–164 BC). He is better known as Josephus , the Latin version of his original Hebrew name, Yosef. As an adolescent, Josephus studied under all of the major Jewish denominations of his time: the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes. He finally settled among the Pharisees when he became an adult, despite his disagreement with their religiopolitical ideologies. By age 26, Josephus had garnered enough influence as a Pharisee to successfully negotiate the release of other Jewish priests who were being held captive by the emperor Nero (r. AD 54–68) in Rome. ​ During his two-year stay in Rome, Josephus became more cosmopolitan as he immersed himself in the city's cosmopolitan atmosphere. This change of heart would later lead him to work for the Romans during a major Jewish revolt against them. However, the steps that got him there were much more nuanced than all-out treachery. Josephus returned to Jerusalem in AD 66, and the First Judeo–Roman War began soon afterward. The Sanhedrin, the preeminent council that arbitrated the religious matters of Judea, appointed him as the leader of Galilee's homeland defense. During his military career, Josephus evaded treason charges by the Zealots, especially from John of Gischala (c. 30 BC–c. AD 70). Yet, the Sanhedrin maintained their trust in him as he attempted to rescue the critical Galilean city of Sepphoris from its Gentile sympathizers. Josephus was unsuccessful there, so he kept his troops on the move and out of range of the advancing Roman forces. He asked the Sanhedrin to send reinforcements or offer peace terms to Roman general Vespasian (AD 9–79), which they did not accept. Vespasian outmaneuvered Josephus at the previously invulnerable stronghold at Jotapata in May AD 67 and besieged it. Two months later, the Romans destroyed the fortress, and Josephus fled to an underground cavern, where he discovered forty Jewish fighters hiding in a cistern. This event was a significant turning point in Josephus' life, as he saved himself through mere flattery and betrayal. Josephus convinced his fellow rebels to cast lots to see which one of them would survive, having prior knowledge that Rome would spare him. He even told Vespasian that he could foretell the future, including the general's succession as the emperor. Josephus was liberated from servitude when this prophecy became a reality, resulting in him taking Vespasian's surname, Flavius , and serving as his ambassador to Judea. Paleo-Christian Press Josephus: Jewish or Roman? ​ When Josephus visited Rome from AD 64 to 66 to persuade Nero to release a few Jewish priests from prison, he was greatly influenced by its cultural grandeur. Perhaps Josephus felt a sense of freedom in its cosmopolitan ambiance as opposed to the strictures of Judaism. Since the first century, Jews have been somewhat critical of Josephus, and the primary interest in his writings derives not from them but from the Christian tradition. In Wars of the Jews , he addressed his critics, who derided him as a traitor and attempted to justify himself. Josephus knew that neither the Jews nor the Romans respected him, but he was aware that he owed his life to Vespasian. Under the emperor's authority, Josephus was able to write his accounts and defend his honor. Perhaps the historian and military leader could be understood as a tragic figure born into circumstances that caused him to be a man of dualistic contrasts. ​ Josephus receives the most scrutiny for his actions during and after the Roman siege of Jerusalem in AD 70. The Zealots had the advantage in the early battles of the First Judeo–Roman War. However, their fate changed when Vespasian ascended to the throne, and Titus became the primary leader of the Roman army. Josephus' patronage transferred from Vespasian to Titus before the siege, requiring him to serve the Romans while they conspired against his compatriots. While the Jewish insurgents maintained control of Jerusalem in early AD 70, Josephus attempted to persuade them to relinquish it in light of their inevitable defeat. He believed that the overall Roman suppression of Jewish tensions was unavoidable and that the Jewish people had no choice but to submit. The Roman victory was so swift and thorough that subsequent generations of Jews have considered the sacking of Jerusalem and the destruction of their temple in AD 70 to be their worst disaster in history until World War II. After the war, Josephus returned to Rome with Titus, who had sacked the temple and exiled the Jewish population of Jerusalem. He received official citizenship, a lifetime annuity, and his ancestral estate in Judea. In retirement there, Josephus composed all of his works. Paleo-Christian Press The Flavian Testimony ​ Josephus is relevant to the academic study of Christian origins because his works provide historical context for the New Testament. He corroborated many events also recorded by the New Testament writers. Josephus wrote about James of Jerusalem ( Antiquities of the Jews 20.9 ) and Jesus himself. Scholars refer to it as the "Flavian Testimony" (Latin: Testimonium Flavianum ), a highly debated section of Josephus' writings. While most of the testimony is uncontested, certain features in which he praised Jesus seem unlikely for a Zealot who never became a Christian. Around AD 93, Josephus testified: ​ Now, there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it is lawful to call him a man, for he was a doer of wonderful works—a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was the Christ, and when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men among us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at first did not forsake him, for he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. The tribe of Christians named after him is not extinct today ( Antiquities of the Jews 18.3 ). Paleo-Christian Press Conclusion ​ Josephus was born into a harsh environment where Roman Gentiles were oppressing his fellow Jews after many periods of national failure. In context, the conquest of Rome in Israel was not supposed to happen according to the post-exilic Jewish worldview. Even though the ancient Israelites reneged on their covenant with their God and were punished by other empires, the Jews preserved the Law of Moses. They rebuilt their temple to accomplish what their ancestors failed to do before spending seventy years in Babylonian captivity. However, Josephus saw the Romans differently after visiting their capital city and allowed that experience to shape his later decisions. It needs to be determined whether he actually agreed with Rome's imperialism as a unifying influence or was merely trying to survive. Perhaps "traitor" is too harsh a judgment. However, Yosef's transition to "Flavius Josephus" could be legitimately viewed as treachery because his decisions were made during the war and resulted in collateral damage, especially in Judea's defeat at the Masada fortress. Conversely, his efforts to interpret Jewish history into comprehensible literature for Gentiles could be seen as a love for the people he intended to protect. ​ To the modern researcher, Josephus provides the most objective source available about life in first-century Judea. While the New Testament and the writings of Rabbinic Judaism present a religious perspective, Josephus complements these sources while recording details that modern historians want to know. If left to the sole authority of Jewish or Roman authorities, this history would probably be lost, except for Josephus. Perhaps it is in this way that the soldier and historian became the prophet he deemed himself to be. Josephus' ability to recognize Roman and Greek patterns of thought and to communicate Israel's sociopolitical philosophy, history, laws, and culture to Gentiles continues to influence objective scholars who benefit from his accounts. In this way, Josephus is not so much a traitor to his people but their defender throughout posterity. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; your eternal Word speaks to us through the words of Holy Scripture. We read about your mighty acts and purposes in history and those who faithfully serve you. Inspired by the revelation of your Son, Jesus, we seek to do your will. Give us ears to hear and hearts to obey. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Hoeber Karl. "Flavius Josephus." Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 8: Infamy–Lapparent . New York: Robert Appleton, 1910. Josephus. The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition . Translated by William Whiston. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987. Kelley, Nicole. "The Cosmopolitan Expression of Josephus' Prophetic Perspective in The Jewish War ." Harvard Theological Review 97, no. 3 (2004): 257–74. link . ​ McLaren, James S. Turbulent Times? Josephus and Scholarship on Judaea in the First Century CE . Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic, 1998. ​ Perelmuter, Hayim G. "The Image of the Jew in Flavius Josephus' Paraphrase of the Bible." The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 62, no. 1 (2000): 164–65. link . Spilsbury, Paul. The Image of the Jew in Flavius Josephus' Paraphrase of the Bible . Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1998. ​ Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020. ​ Teicher, Morton I. "Judging Josephus." Jerusalem Post . July 23, 2009. link . ​ Tobin, Thomas H. "Understanding Josephus: Seven Perspectives." The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 62, no. 1 (2000): 184–86. link .

Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Introduction Judaism and Christianity are two distinct world religions, each with its own traditions, histories, denominations, commentaries, and more. However, this was not always the case, as Christianity was originally a sect of Judaism, and all original Christians were Jews. So, how did a first-century reform movement within Judaism evolve into a predominantly Gentile religion, sometimes with great hostility toward its Jewish forebears? The split between Judaism and Christianity began during the First Judeo–Roman War (AD 66–70), when the Zealots fought against the Roman Empire. The Jewish Christians refused to join the war effort with their Galilean and Judean compatriots, instead fleeing to the Jordan Valley town of Pella. Eusebius of Caesarea (AD 260–340) wrote: The people of the church in Jerusalem had been commanded by a revelation, given to approved men there before the war, to leave the city and dwell in a certain town of Perea called Pella. When those who believed in Christ came from Jerusalem, it was as if the royal city of the Jews and the whole land of Judea were there ( Church History 3.5 ). This warning coincides with the Olivet Discourse in which Jesus cautioned, "So when you see standing in the holy place 'the abomination that causes desolation,' spoken of through the prophet Daniel [ Dan. 9:27 ]—let the reader understand—then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains" ( Matt. 24:15–16 ). Today, we mistakenly read this passage as a future event when, in fact, it was a historical one. The sack of Jerusalem in AD 70 was not unlike the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the national memory of Israel. When the Roman general Titus (AD 39–81) entered the Jerusalem temple, his soldiers burned it down and looted its treasures. Even today, Jews visit what was once the Western Wall to lament the loss of their temple, and the Arch of Titus in Rome still memorializes this victory. A bas-relief on the Arch, built eleven years afterward in AD 81, illustrates Roman soldiers plundering the Jewish temple and carrying away its menorah. Matthew wanted to "let the reader understand" that Titus was the one who committed the desolating sacrilege by standing in the Jerusalem temple and stealing its holiest implements reserved for the Levites alone ( Lev. 24:9 ). Dana Murray No Question of Jewish Identity As a demonym, the basic definition of Jew is "a person from the land of Judah/Judea." However, as an ethnonym, a  Jew  is someone who is a covenant member of Israel, with circumcision being the mark of their citizenship ( Gen. 17 ). Originally, Israel had twelve tribes, each named for a son of the patriarch Jacob, with  Judah  being one of them ( Gen. 49:28  ff.). God had given Judah's father Jacob the name Israel ( H3478 ), "one who strives for God" ( Gen. 32:28 ). After the glorious reign of King Solomon (r. c. 967–c. 928 BC), his successors divided Israel into the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judea ( 1 Kgs. 12:1–24 ; 2 Chron. 10 ). In about 722 BC, Assyria conquered Israel and forced its ten tribes into exile ( 2 Kgs. 17:5–23 ), leaving only the two tribes from Judah. That said, Jesus traced his Jewish heritage through the line of Judah ( Matt. 1:2–3 ; Luke 3:33 ; Heb. 7:14 ). Likewise, the apostle Paul defended his Jewish heritage when he wrote, "[I was] circumcised on the eighth day, of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews; in regard to the law, a Pharisee" ( Phil. 3:5 ). ​ Jesus' twelve apostles were all Jewish. They represented the twelve tribes of a fully restored Israel ( Matt. 19:28 ). When Simon Peter gave his Pentecost sermon, he exhorted, "Therefore let all Israel be assured of this: God has made this Jesus, whom you crucified, both Lord and Messiah" ( Acts 2:36 ). In response, about 3,000 Jews were baptized and devoted their lives to Jesus as their national Messiah ( Acts 2:37–42 ). Luke, the writer of Acts of the Apostles, testified about these new Jewish believers in Jesus: "Every day they continued to meet together in the temple courts. They broke bread in their homes and ate together with glad and sincere hearts" ( Acts 2:46 ). Yes, the first Christians still worshiped in the Jewish temple! A theology of the church replacing the Jews as a new Israel would not develop for yet another century, as neither Jesus nor Paul taught this. When Paul visited Jerusalem one last time, he went to the temple. He completed the purification rites of his nazirite vow, sacrificing a turtledove or pigeon, a lamb, and a ram according to the Law of Moses ( Acts 18:18 , 21:26 ; cf. Num. 6:1–21 ). Paul demonstrated his faithful observance of Judaism: "I have done nothing wrong against the Jewish law or against the temple or against Caesar" ( Acts 25:8 ). Axel Smid Parting Ways: From Jerusalem to Jamnia Jesus' brother James led the Council of Jerusalem around AD 50 ( Acts 15:1–35 ). Paul's first missionary journey, which took place between AD 46 and 48, was highly successful; however, it led to a rift between his Gentile converts and the Jewish-dominated church in Jerusalem. The Jewish Christians believed Gentiles should undergo circumcision, thinking the church was some form of "greater Israel." James heard both arguments at the council, deciding: "It is my judgment, therefore, that we should not make it difficult for the Gentiles who are turning to God. Instead, we should write to them, telling them to abstain from food polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from the meat of strangled animals and from blood" ( Acts 15:19–20 ). James appealed to the Covenant of Noah, a list of seven laws God expects from all nations (cf. Gen. 9:1–17 ; see " Doctrine & Praxis ," pp. 8–9). This resolution worked for the Jewish elders because they understood the Covenant of Noah was a precursor to the Law of Moses, so they did not contradict it. In essence, the Council of Jerusalem treated Christian Gentiles as foreigners among Jews, realizing that both groups had equal access to Jesus. At first, the elders viewed the Christian Gentiles as gerim ( H1616 ) or naturalized foreigners living in Israel ( Num. 15:15–16 ). However, James ruled that they were  zarim  ( H2114 ) or  nochrim  ( H5237 ), foreigners residing in Israel for a short time ( 2 Chron. 6:32 ). This was a fair hearing for both Jewish Christians, whose national constitution was the Law of Moses, and the Christian Gentiles who came from many nations. Given James' wisdom and patience, the Council of Jerusalem should have prevented at least the Jewish and the Gentile expressions of Christianity from parting ways. Nevertheless, its resolution was temporary. ​ John's gospel includes three references to Jewish followers of Jesus being expelled from the synagogue ( John 9:22 ,  12:42 ,  16:2 ). However, this does not necessarily mean that John was written between AD 70 and 100, as some liberal scholars posit. During Jesus' ministry, synagogue leaders did threaten to excommunicate Jesus' disciples. These were localized threats, not yet reaching the level of a national ban across Galilee and Judea. Jesus distinguished between them when he warned: "They will put you out of the synagogue; in fact, the time is coming when anyone who kills you will think they are offering a service to God" ( John 16:2 ). John probably wrote his gospel between AD 64 to 70 since he made no allusions to the destruction of Jerusalem. However, when he penned Revelation around AD 90, John did imply the lack of a temple ( Rev. 21:22 ) and Christians being thrown out of the synagogues (cf. Rev. 2:9 , 3:9 ; see " Revelation: Then, Now & Not Yet "). Tensions between Jews and Christians reached their breaking point after AD 70; however, this was exacerbated when the emperor Vespasian (r. AD 69–79) enforced the  fiscus Judaicus , commonly referred to as the "Jewish tax." The fiscus Judaicus forced Jews to give money to the Jupiter Capitolinus temple in Rome instead of the Jerusalem temple that Vespasian had destroyed. The emperor Nerva (r. AD 96–98) reformed the tax in AD 96, officially recognizing Judaism and Christianity as separate religions. While the Christians no longer had to pay the fiscus Judaicus , the Roman Empire would go on to persecute the church. In AD 68, the pacifist rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai (AD 30–90) faked his death and told his disciples to carry him out of besieged Jerusalem in a casket. Afterward, he sought an audience with the Roman general Vespasian, whom he conveniently prophesied would become emperor. When Vespasian did ascend to the throne, he granted ben Zakkai's request to build a Pharisee academy at the coastal town of Jamnia (Hebrew: Yavneh ; H2996 ). The Sanhedrin, the Jewish ruling council, moved there from Jerusalem. Yochanan ben Zakkai had been a student of the well-known rabbi Gamaliel, who also taught Paul ( Acts 5:34 , 22:3 ). Today, modern Rabbinic Judaism traces its lineage to the Pharisee sect, particularly to the revisions of ben Zakkai. In AD 90, his Sanhedrin held the Council of Jamnia, which reinterpreted Judaism as a religion without a temple and allowed diverse opinions. However, the rabbis at Jamnia also banned the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, which was quoted exclusively by the New Testament writers. They reordered the Hebrew Bible to de-emphasize messianic and apocalyptic readings, instead focusing on reinforcing observance of the Law. By AD 90, the parting of ways between Judaism and Christianity was complete. The rabbis of Jamnia published the Birkat ha-Minim ( H1293 , H4327 ), or "Blessing on the Heretics," i.e., Jews with unorthodox "kinds of" beliefs. Many Jewish synagogues still recite it to this day. It reads: For the apostates, let there be no hope . . . Let the nozerim ["Nazarenes," believers in Jesus of Nazareth; cf. Acts 24:5 ] and the minim [Jewish heretics] be destroyed in a moment. And let them be blotted out of the Book of Life and not be inscribed together with the righteous. Blessed are you, L ORD , who humbles the arrogant. ​ Paleo-Christian Press Conclusion The Second Judeo–Roman War (AD 132–135) resulted in the separation of Judaism and Christianity. A messianic claimant named Simon bar Kochba (r. AD 132–135) led Jewish insurgents in an attempt to overthrow the Roman government of Judea. He successfully led an independent Israel for two years but was ultimately defeated at the Masada fortress. The Jewish Christians did not join bar Kochba because he claimed to be a messiah, thereby conflicting with their belief in Jesus. However, Jesus warned, "For many will come in my name, claiming, 'I am the Messiah,' and will deceive many. You will hear of wars and rumors of wars, but do not be alarmed. Such things must happen, but the end is still to come" ( Matt. 24:5–6 ). Simon bar Kochba was undoubtedly the most notable of these false messiahs. Because Rabbinic Judaism denied—and still denies—that Jesus is the Messiah, they gave up on the idea of literal fulfillment of messianic prophecies. Rabbinic Jews gave up hope and settled for a religion without salvation, a messiah, or the kingdom of God. Instead, the Romans dispersed the Jews across their empire, forbidding them to enter Judea at the threat of death. Unfortunately, Christianity as a Gentile religion would take some dark turns toward persecuting and killing Jews, leading up to the Holocaust (Hebrew: Shoah : H7724b ) from 1939 to 1945 ( see " Auschwitz & Biblical Studies "). Nevertheless, we Christian Gentiles are responsible for remembering our Jewish heritage and reconciling the parting of ways.​ ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you established your covenant with Abraham and his seed. Hear the prayers of your church that the people through whom you brought blessing to the world may also receive the gift of salvation through Jesus the Messiah, our Lord. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. ​ Bard, Mitchell G. "Birkat ha-Minim." Jewish Virtual Library. 2008. link . ​ ⸻. "Strangers and Gentiles." 2007. link . ​ ⸻. "Yochanan ben Zakkai." link . Baron, Lori, Jill Hicks-Keeton, and Matthew Thiessen, eds. The Ways That Often Parted: Essays in Honor of Joel Marcus . Atlanta: SBL Press, 2018. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Cohen, Shaye J. D. "The Fiscus Judaicus and the Parting of the Ways." Biblical Archaeological Society. October 10, 2012. link . ⸻. "Chapter 15 The Ways That Parted: Jews, Christians, and Jewish-Christians, ca. 100–150 CE". In Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70–132 CE (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2017). link . ​ Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. ​ Dunn, James D. G., ed. "Jews and Christians: The Parting of Ways AD 70 to 135." Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 66 (1992). link . Eusebius. "The Church History of Eusebius." Translated by Arthur Cushman McGiffert. In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Ser. 2, Vol. 1: Eusebius Pamphilus: Church History; Life of Constantine; Oration in Praise of Constantine . Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1890. Everts, Janet Meyer. "The Apostle Paul and His Times: Christian History Timeline." Christian History  47 (1995). link . ​ ⸻. "Twelve New Leaders for Twelve Old Tribes." Jewish Studies  (blog). Israel Institute of Biblical Studies. October 14, 2014. link . ​ Fredriksen, Paula. When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation . New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018. Galli, Mark, and Ted Olsen, eds. 131 Christians Everyone Should Know . Brentwood, TN: Holman Reference, 2000. Heemstra, Marius. "The Fiscus Judaicus and the Parting of the Ways." Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2, no. 277 (2010). link . ​ ​Jacobs, Louis. "Yochanan ben Zakkai." My Jewish Learning. link . ​ Johnson, Luke Timothy. Sacra Pagina, Vol. 5: The Acts of the Apostles . Edited by Daniel J. Harrington. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 1992. Kaiser, Walter C., Jr. Jewish Christianity: Why Believing Jews and Gentiles Parted Ways in the Early Church . Silverton, OR: Lampion House, 2017. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ Kim, Doosuk. "The Parting of the Way: A Survey of the Relationship Between Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries CE." Themelios 46, no. 1 (2021). link . ​ Lizorkin-Eyzenberg, Eli. "Council of Jamnia and Old Testament Canon." Jewish Studies (blog). Israel Institute of Biblical Studies. March 8, 2014. link . Tabor, James D. Paul and Jesus: How the Apostle Transformed Christianity . New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012. ​ Wallace, J. Warner. "John's Gospel May Have Been Last, but It Wasn't Late." Cold-Case Christianity. March 13, 2017. link . ​ Wiener, Rebecca. "Judaism: Who Is a Jew?" Jewish Virtual Library. link .

John Theodor Introduction The Hebrew name Yisrael ( H3478 ) means "to strive for/with God" or "God strives." It first appears thirty-two chapters into Genesis, when Jacob wrestled with God's messenger and overpowered him. However, Jacob received a permanent injury to his hip. "The man asked him, 'What is your name?' 'Jacob,' he answered. Then the man said, 'Your name will no longer be Jacob, but Israel, because you have struggled with God and with humans and have overcome'" ( Gen. 32:27–28 ). Moses further explained, "Therefore to this day the Israelites do not eat the tendon attached to the socket of the hip, because the socket of Jacob's hip was touched near the tendon" ( Gen. 32:32 ). The story of how God renamed Jacob "Israel" was repeated at Genesis 35: After Jacob returned from Paddan Aram, God appeared to him again and blessed him. God said to him, "Your name is Jacob, but you will no longer be called Jacob; your name will be Israel." So he named him Israel. And God said to him, "I am God Almighty; be fruitful and increase in number. A nation and a community of nations will come from you, and kings will be among your descendants. The land I gave to Abraham and Isaac I also give to you, and I will give this land to your descendants after you" ( Gen. 35:9–12 ). ​ Paleo-Christian Press Israel in the Old Testament ​ So, why is this narrative so important? Because it tells how God elected the Hebrews to become the nation of Israel, a nation that strives for God. He rescued them from Egyptian slavery to sojourn in the territory of Canaan, where the Hebrews would live at the crossroads of Asia, Europe, and Africa. God wanted the ancient Israelites to be on the world stage, just as the modern-day Israelis are. From the land of Israel, the Hebrews would be a "light for the Gentiles" ( Isa. 49:6 ). This was the reason God chose Jacob to be "Israel," whose twelve sons would go on to lead as the twelve tribes of Israel, the nation of God's elect ( Gen. 49:28 ). Nevertheless, Israel is not just the name of some ancient country or the embattled State of Israel today. No, it is more: It is the name of God's chosen people throughout the world, first to the Jew and then to us Gentiles ( Rom. 1:16 ). Most of all, the very identity of Israel is Jesus, who epitomizes the human striving for and with God. In the Old Testament, the term Israel has multiple layers of meaning, encompassing both a geographical and a theological concept. Here are some critical aspects of its meaning: Geographical:   Israel initially referred to the land promised by God to Abraham and his descendants. This land, often described as flowing with milk and honey, encompassed roughly the region known today as the Levant. Ethnic and tribal:   Israel also referred to the descendants of Jacob, who was later renamed Israel after his wrestling match with God ( Gen. 32:28 ). Jacob had twelve sons, who became the eponymous ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel. These tribes formed the basis of Israelite society and identity. Political and national:  Over time, Israel evolved into a political entity, reaching its peak during the reigns of kings such as David and Solomon. During this period, Israel was a unified kingdom, although it later split into the northern kingdom of Israel (comprising ten tribes) and the southern kingdom of Judah (comprising two tribes). Covenantal:   Israel is deeply tied to the covenant relationship between God and the people. According to the Old Testament narratives, God entered a covenant with Abraham, promising to bless him and his descendants and make them a great nation. God reaffirmed this covenant with Isaac and Jacob. Throughout the Old Testament, the concept of Israel as God's chosen people is central to understanding the relationship between God and humanity. Spiritual and symbolic:   Israel  holds spiritual and symbolic significance that extends beyond its physical and historical dimensions. It represents God's faithfulness to his promises, sovereignty over the land and people, and a redemptive plan for humanity. In prophetic literature, Israel often symbolizes God's people, encompassing Jews and spiritual descendants who follow God faithfully. Understanding the meaning of Israel in the Old Testament requires considering all these dimensions—geographical, ethnic, political, covenantal, and spiritual—to grasp its rich significance within the biblical narrative. ​ Paleo-Christian Press Israel in the New Testament ​ In his letter to the Romans, the apostle Paul very much identified with his Jewish heritage: I speak the truth in Christ—I am not lying, my conscience confirms it through the Holy Spirit—I have great sorrow and unceasing anguish in my heart. For I could wish that I myself were cursed and cut off from Christ for the sake of my people, those of my own race, the people of Israel. Theirs is the adoption to sonship; theirs the divine glory, the covenants, the receiving of the law, the temple worship and the promises. Theirs are the patriarchs, and from them is traced the human ancestry of the Messiah, who is God over all, forever praised! Amen. It is not as though God's word had failed. For not all who are descended from Israel are Israel. Nor because they are his descendants are they all Abraham's children. On the contrary, "It is through Isaac that your offspring will be reckoned" [ Gen. 21:12 ]. In other words, it is not the children of physical descent who are God's children, but the children of the promise who are regarded as Abraham's offspring ( Rom. 9:1–8 ). ​ Paul also wrote explicitly about the Jews' current standing with God. Notice how Paul, the standard of New Testament biblical theology, used the name Israel in the present tense about the Jews: ​ I ask then: Did God reject his people? By no means! I am an Israelite myself, a descendant of Abraham, from the tribe of Benjamin. God did not reject his people, whom he foreknew. . . . I do not want you to be ignorant of this mystery, brothers and sisters, so that you may not be conceited: Israel has experienced a hardening in part until the full number of the Gentiles has come in, and in this way all Israel will be saved. . . . As far as the gospel is concerned, they are enemies for your sake; but as far as election is concerned, they are loved on account of the patriarchs, for God's gifts and his call are irrevocable ( Rom. 11:1–2 , 25–26 , 28–29 ). ​ Though replacement theology , also known as supersessionism , has been the normative doctrine in modern Christendom, it violates the internal message of the New Testament. Replacement theologians and supersessionists believe the church replaced or superseded the Jewish people as God's chosen people, Israel. However, Paul testified that Christian Gentiles are ingrafted branches into Israel's family tree ( Rom. 11:16–24 ). Their olive tree was never cut down or replaced by another one. The tree of Israel still stands today, populated by faithful Jews and Gentiles who believe in their Messiah. Compared to replacement theology,  commonwealth theology  features a unified view of Israel in which Jews and Christian Gentiles coexist in the commonwealth of Israel through reconciliation in Christ. Paul also testified to this reality: Therefore, remember that formerly you who are Gentiles by birth and called "uncircumcised" by those who call themselves "the circumcision" (which is done in the body by human hands)—remember that at that time you were separate from Christ, excluded from citizenship in Israel and foreigners to the covenants of the promise, without hope and without God in the world ( Eph. 2:11–12 ). ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion ​ Two questions arise when Christians discuss God's election of Israel: 1) Why would God choose one nation over another? 2) Why did God choose the Hebrews, especially when they were unfaithful and denied Jesus as their Messiah? If we recall the prophet Hosea, God never divorced Israel as his chosen people. Instead, he looked forward to a time when the Israelites would think about the consequences of their actions, repent, and then reconcile with him ( Hos. 2 ). The prophet Isaiah wrote: The Spirit of the Sovereign L ORD is on me, because the L ORD has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim freedom for the captives and release from darkness for the prisoners, to proclaim the year of the L ORD 's favor and the day of vengeance of our God, to comfort all who mourn ( Isa. 61:1–2 ). Jesus himself read this passage in his hometown Nazareth synagogue, which angered his fellow Jews to the point of killing him ( Luke 4:16–30 ). Why were these Israelites so offended when they were supposed to await God's favor? Because they knew Jesus was claiming to be the one and same Messiah and the very identity of Israel itself. We know Jesus as the King of kings and the Lord of lords, but he is also the Israelite of all Israelites and the Person of all persons. When God elected Israel to be his chosen nation, he made a sovereign choice, knowing that sin enslaves our own free will ( Rom. 8:7–8 ). However, God also intended for Israel to demonstrate to the world how to strive for him. When he saw the Israelites fail repeatedly, he resolved to save the world through Jesus' atonement and resurrection. ​ ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; for you manifested your love by sending your only-begotten Son into the world, that all might live through him: Pour out your Spirit on your church, that we may fulfill his command to preach the gospel to all people. Send forth laborers into your harvest; defend them in all dangers and temptations; and hasten the time when the fullness of the Gentiles shall be gathered in, and Israel shall be saved; through Jesus the Messiah, our Lord. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ ​Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Goldingay, John. Israel's Faith . Vol. 2 of Old Testament Theology Series. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2016. ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. Klett, Fred. "Not Replacement . . . Expansion!" Monergism. Christian Publication Resource Foundation. 2021. link . Knight, Douglas A., and Amy-Jill Levine. The Meaning of the Bible: What the Jewish Scriptures and Christian Old Testament Can Teach Us . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2011. Storms, Sam. "Replacement Theology or Inclusion Theology?" Sam Storms (blog). November 1, 2017. link . ​​ Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020.​​ Trotter, Perry, and Steve Murray. "Replacement Theology: Time-Honoured Error." Israel in the Biblical Worldview. January 1, 2016. Video, 7:00. link . Varner, William, Arnold G. Fruchtenbaum, David H. Stern, John Fischer, and Gershon Nerel. How Jewish Is Christianity? Two Views on the Messianic Movement . Counterpoints. Edited by Louis Goldberg and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003. ​ Wright, N. T. How God Became King: The Forgotten Story of the Gospels . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016. ​ ⸻. Simply Jesus: A New Vision of Who He Was, What He Did, and Why He Matters . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2018.​ ​ Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction The following historical statements offer valuable insights into how contemporaries outside the Christian tradition perceived and discussed Jesus. By examining accounts from diverse cultural and religious perspectives, we gain a richer understanding of the sociopolitical and religious milieu of first-century Judea. Moreover, the fact that figures such as Tacitus, Josephus, Pliny the Younger, and Lucian of Samosata, among others, deemed Jesus worthy of mention underscores the significance of his life and teachings, transcending mere religious boundaries to leave an indelible mark on the intellectual landscape of the ancient world. Through this exploration, we affirm Jesus' historical existence and illuminate the multifaceted nature of his impact on the tapestry of human history.​ These non-Christian perspectives affirm Jesus' historical presence and reveal how his influence extended beyond the confines of his immediate followers. For instance, writers like Suetonius and Mara bar Serapion shed light on how Jesus' life and the early Christian movement were perceived within broader Roman and Jewish contexts. Their accounts often reflect the tensions and misunderstandings surrounding early Christians, offering a glimpse into the challenges they faced in a world shaped by diverse religious and philosophical traditions. By examining these external accounts, we see how Jesus' teaching sparked reactions ranging from admiration to skepticism and even hostility, each contributing to the broader narrative of how his legacy reshaped cultural and ideological frameworks in the ancient world. This mosaic of views deepens our understanding of Jesus' role in history and highlights the dynamic interplay between his message and the societies it touched. Paleo-Christian Press Direct References to Jesus' Historicity ​ Josephus (c. AD 93) ​ Now, there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it is lawful to call him a man, for he was a doer of wonderful works—a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was the Christ, and when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men among us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at first did not forsake him, for he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. The tribe of Christians named after him is not extinct today ( Antiquities of the Jews 18.3 ). ​ Festus was now dead, and Albinus was, but upon the road, he assembled the Sanhedrin of judges and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others [or some of his companions]. When he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned ( Antiquities of the Jews 20.9 ). ​ Tacitus (c. AD 116) ​ Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christ, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judea, the first source of the evil but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city as of hatred against humankind ( Annals 15.44 ). ​ Talmud (third century) ​ On Passover Eve, they hung the corpse of Jesus the Nazarene after they killed him by way of stoning. And a crier went before him for forty days, publicly proclaiming that Jesus the Nazarene was going out to be stoned because he practiced sorcery, incited people to idol worship, and led the Jewish people astray. Anyone with a reason to acquit him should come forward and speak on his behalf. The court did not find a reason to forgive him, so they stoned him and hung his corpse on Passover eve ( Sanhedrin 43a:20 ). Was Jesus the Nazarene worthy of searching for a reason to acquit him? He was an inciter to idol worship, and the Merciful One states about an inciter to idol worship: "Neither shall you spare, neither shall you conceal him" ( Deut. 13:9 ). Rather, Jesus was different, as he had close ties with the government, and the gentile authorities were interested in his acquittal. Consequently, the court gave him every opportunity to clear himself, so it could not be claimed that he was falsely convicted ( Sanhedrin 43a:21 ). Jesus came before Yehoshua ben Perahya several times and said to him, "Accept our, i.e., my, repentance." Yehoshua ben Perahya took no notice of him. One day, Yehoshua ben Perahya was reciting Shema [i.e., Deut. 6:4 ], and Jesus came before him with the same request. Yehoshua Ben Perahya intended to accept his request and signaled to him with his hand that he would wait until he completed his prayer. Jesus did not understand the signal and thought, "He is driving me away." He stood a brick upright to serve as an idol and bowed to it. Yehoshua ben Perahya then said to Jesus, "Repent." Jesus told him, "This is the tradition I received from you: Whoever sins and causes the masses to sin is not allowed to repent." And the master says: "Jesus performed sorcery, incited Jews to engage in idolatry, and led Israel astray" ( Sanhedrin 107b:14 ). ​ Paleo-Christian Press Darkness & Earthquake During the Crucifixion ​ Phlegon of Tralles (AD 137) ​ However, in the fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad, an eclipse of the sun happened, greater and more excellent than any that had occurred before it; at the sixth hour, day turned into dark night, so that the stars were seen in the sky, and an earthquake in Bithynia toppled many buildings of the city of Nicaea (Jerome of Stridon, Chronicle , p. 257 ; cf. Matt. 27:45 , 51 ; Mark 15:33 ; Luke 23:44–45 ). ​ Tertullian of Carthage (c. AD 197) ​ The Jews were so exasperated by [Jesus'] teaching, by which their rulers and chiefs were convicted of the truth, chiefly because so many turned aside to him, that at last, they brought him before Pontius Pilate, at that time Roman governor of Syria [Judea was merged into Syria Palestine in AD 132]; and, by the violence of their outcries against him, extorted a sentence giving him up to them to be crucified. He predicted this, which, however, would have signified little had not the prophets of old done it as well. And yet, nailed upon the cross, he exhibited many notable signs by which his death was distinguished from all others. At his own free will, he, with a word, dismissed his spirit, anticipating the executioner's work. In the same hour, too, the light of day was withdrawn when the sun at the very time was in his meridian blaze. Those unaware that this had been predicted about Christ thought it an eclipse. You yourselves have the account of the world prophecy still in your archives ( Apology 21 ). ​ Julius Africanus (AD 221) As to [Jesus'] works severally, his cures affect body and soul. His disciples and apostles have most authoritatively set forth the mysteries of his doctrine and the resurrection from the dead before us. On the whole, the world there pressed a most fearful darkness; an earthquake rent the rocks, and many places in Judea and other districts were thrown down. In the third book of his History , Thallus calls this darkness, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. The Hebrews celebrate the Passover on the fourteenth day of the month, according to the lunar calendar, and the passion of our Savior falls on the day before the Passover. However, a solar eclipse takes place only when the moon passes between the Earth and the sun. And it cannot happen at any other time. Still, in the interval between the first day of the new moon and the last of the old, at their junction, how should an eclipse happen when the moon is almost diametrically opposite the sun? Let that opinion pass, carry the majority with it, and let this prophecy of the world be deemed an eclipse of the sun, like others, a warning only to the eye. Phlegon records that, in the time of Tiberius Caesar, at full moon, there was a total eclipse of the sun from the sixth hour to the ninth—manifestly that one of which we speak. But what does an eclipse have in common with an earthquake, the rending rocks, the resurrection of the dead, and such significant perturbations throughout the world? Indeed, no such event has been recorded for an extended period. But it was a darkness induced by God, because the Lord happened to suffer at that time. The calculation shows that the period of seventy weeks, as noted in Daniel [ Dan. 9:20–27 ], is completed at this time ( Chronography 18 ). ​ Paleo-Christian Press Indirect References to Jesus' Historicity ​ Mara bar Serapion (c. AD 73) ​ What are we to say when the wise are dragged by force by the hands of tyrants, and their wisdom is deprived of its freedom by slander, and they are plundered for their superior intelligence without the opportunity of making a defense? They are not wholly to be pitied. What benefit did the Athenians obtain by putting Socrates to death, seeing that they received retribution for famine and pestilence? Or the people of Samos by the burning of Pythagoras, seeing that their country was covered with sand in one hour. Or the Jews by the murder of their wise king [i.e., Jesus], seeing that their kingdom was driven away from them from that very time? For with justice did God grant compensation to the wisdom of all three of them. For the Athenians died by famine; the sea covered the people of Samos without remedy; and the Jews, brought to desolation and expelled from their kingdom, were driven away into every land. Nay, Socrates did "not" die because of Plato, nor yet Pythagoras because of the statue of Hera, nor yet the wise king because of the new laws that he enacted ( A Letter of Mara ). ​ Suetonius (c. AD 120) ​ Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus [a misspelling of Christus, "Christ"], he expelled them from Rome ( Claudius 25 ). Compare this to Acts 18:2 ("There he met a Jew named Aquila, a native of Pontus, who had recently come from Italy with his wife Priscilla because Claudius had ordered all Jews to leave Rome"). ​ Pliny the Younger (c. AD 112) ​ It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. Who can better guide me in resolving my hesitation or inform me of my ignorance? I have never participated in the trials of Christians. I, therefore, do not know what offenses it is the practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should be any distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; whether a pardon is to be granted for repentance, or, if a man has once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses, or only the crimes associated with the name are to be punished. ​ Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated them as to whether they were Christians; for those who confessed, I questioned them a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed, for I did not doubt that whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness, and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. Others possessed the same folly, but I signed an order to transfer them to Rome because they were Roman citizens. ​ Soon, accusations spread, as is usually the case, due to the proceedings, and several incidents occurred. An anonymous document containing the names of many persons was published. Those who denied that they were or had been Christians when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods and cursed Christ—none of which those who are Christians, it is said, can be forced to do—these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshiped your image and the statues of the gods and cursed Christ. ​ They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meeting on a fixed day before dawn and singing a hymn responsively to Christ as to a god and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food, but ordinary and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict, which I had issued forbidding political associations, as per your instructions. Accordingly, I judged it necessary to find the truth by torturing two enslaved women called deaconesses, and I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition. ​ I, therefore, postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you. The matter seemed to warrant consulting you, primarily due to the number involved. Many persons of every age, every rank, and both sexes are and will be endangered. The contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is indeed quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found. Hence, it is easy to imagine how a multitude of people can be reformed if an opportunity for repentance is afforded ( Letters 10.96 ). ​ Trajan (c. AD 112) ​ You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those denounced to you as Christians. It is impossible to lay down any general rule as a fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and proves it—that is, by worshiping our gods—even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. However, anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. This dangerous precedent is out of keeping with the spirit of our age ( Letters 10.97 ). ​ Lucian of Samosata (c. AD 200) ​ He made them all look like children in a trice, for he was a prophet, cult leader, head of the synagogue, and everything by himself. He interpreted and explained some of their books and even composed many of his own. They revered him as a god, made use of him as a lawgiver, and set him down as a protector; next after that other, to be sure, whom they still worship, the man who was crucified in Palestine because he introduced this new cult into the world. . . . The poor wretches have convinced themselves, first and foremost, that they will be immortal and live for all time, in consequence of which they despise death and even willingly give themselves into custody; most of them. Furthermore, their first lawgiver persuaded them that they were all brothers of one another after transgressing once and for all by denying the Greek gods, worshiping that crucified sophist himself, and living under his laws. Therefore, they despise all things indiscriminately and consider them common property ( Passing of Peregrinus 11, 13 ). ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; who wonderfully created and restored the dignity of human nature. Grant that we may share the divine life of him who humbled himself to share our humanity, your Son Jesus the Messiah our Lord; who lives and reigns with you, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Adler, William, and Paul Tuffin, trans. The Chronography of George Synkellos: A Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation . New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. Africanus, Julius. "The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus." In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 6: Gregory Thaumaturgus, Dionysius the Great, Julius Africanus, Anatolius and Minor Writers, Methodius, Arnobius . Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1886. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ Craig, William Lane. "Question of the Week, no. 160: Thallus on the Darkness at Noon." Reasonable Faith. May 10, 2010. link . Donalson, Malcolm Drew. A Translation of Jerome's Chronicon with Historical Commentary . Lewiston, NY: Mellen University Press, 1996. Habermas, Gary R. The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ . Joplin, MO: College, 1996. ​ Hutchinson, Robert J. Searching for Jesus: New Discoveries in the Quest for Jesus of Nazareth—and How They Confirm the Gospel Accounts . Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2015. Jerome. Chronicle . Translated by Roger Pearse. Tertullian Project. link . Josephus. The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition . Translated by William Whiston. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987. ​ Keller, Otto, ed. Rerum naturalium scriptores graeci minores, Vol. 1 . Leipzig, Germany: Teurber, 1877. Lucian of Samosata. "Passing of Peregrinus." Early Christian Writings. link . Mara bar Serapion. "A Letter of Mara, son of Serapion." Early Christian Writings. link . Pliny. "Pliny the Younger and Trajan on the Christians." Early Christian Writings. link . ​ Rolfe, J. C., ed. Suetonius, Vol. 1 . Loeb Classical Library. New York: Macmillan, 1914. Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020. Tacitus. Complete Works of Tacitus . Trans. Alfred J. Church and William J. Brodribb. New York: Random House, 1942. ​ Tertullian. "Apology." In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 3: Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian I. Apologetic; II. Anti-Marcion; III. Ethical . Edited by Allan Menzies. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1889. ​ Van Voorst, Robert E. Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Why do bad things happen to good people? This question does not precisely define the "problem of evil." Malevolence happens to humankind without regard for race, gender, socioeconomic status, or religion; it is no respecter of persons. As a concept, evil is moral reprehensibility and the infliction of harm. The first alludes to human free will, while the second represents danger beyond one's control. The problem of evil encompasses both "moral" and "natural" categories, the latter implying malice that occurs without human intervention. The evil of 9/11 was a choice for the terrorists bent on hatred and murder. The 2,753 people who died in the World Trade Center and the forty killed on Flight 93 experienced the harshest evil a human being can do to another: murder. Alternatively, the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which has sickened millions worldwide, cannot be directly attributed to human behavior. In both circumstances, there were likely honorable people among the dead, so the problem of evil is not always the direct result of human wickedness. Many secularists are confused by events such as 9/11 and COVID-19 because they deny the spiritual cause of evil. The forces of economic globalization caused many to overlook the interaction between "moral" and "natural" tribulations. One does not have to believe in God to be affected by the problem of evil. Agnosticism , the position that right and wrong cannot be known objectively, does not shield anyone from dealing with it. ​ A skeptic only has two solutions to evade an absolute standard for morality: 1) To say that secularist philosophy gives humankind reason to seek a greater good for the sake of cooperation, or 2) To say there are no grounds for a greater good. The second option is the premise for dysteleological surd . If teleological means a condition with a cause and purpose, then dysteleological describes situations where no greater good can be served. Surd is a term most commonly used in mathematics to classify irrational numbers—values that cannot be accurately expressed. Likewise, surd evil alludes to malevolence that cannot be contextualized with a more significant objective. So, a dysteleological surd is an awful situation in which no rational explanation, whether theological or philosophical, can do justice. However, the agnostic still must have some idea of the ultimate good to make such a judgment. Therefore, dysteleological surd as a concept does more to beg the question than to eliminate absolutes. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Evil & Omniscience in Theodicy ​ Skeptics employ the dysteleological surd as a deliberate, formulaic attempt to invalidate God's existence. The idea is that surd evils such as ethnic cleansing and sex trafficking are so gratuitous that a deity would have no choice but to interfere. Most of the debates against theism include this paradox attributed to the Greek philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BC): Is God willing to prevent evil but not able to? Then he is impotent. Is he able but not willing? Then, he is malevolent. Is he both willing and able? Then where does evil come from? Very few critics of theism dare suggest evil is a mere illusion. However, everyone recognizes issues in the human experience that leave room for improvement. All people have a fair standard and consider violations " unjust." In keeping with this mysterious a priori knowledge, Christianity names the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as its author and finisher. On the other hand, an atheist believes that morality is a function of human survival and that no abstract realm could exist. Agnosticism represents varying degrees of unknowable inquiry, ranging from near atheism to approximate faith. ​ For the Epicurean paradox to effectively dismiss the notion of God, one must admit to the reality of evil. Otherwise, the whole argument is pointless from the start. Theists contend that if malevolence can be sensed and perceived, so can righteousness. Just as the skeptic asks, "Where does evil come from?" to nullify God's existence, the theist wants to know, "Where does goodness come from?" to prove it. The reductio ad absurdum goes both ways, and there is an impasse between them. Yet, both sides mutually agree—at least for rhetorical purposes—to a divine being that is all-knowing, all-powerful, and morally absolute ( see " Omni: All of God's Attributes "). The skeptic wins if God's existence could be reduced to absurdity by negating his omniscience and omnipotence. However, theism succeeds if it can prove divine benevolence as God's choice to limit his otherwise boundless abilities. Of course, the hard-line determinist approach suggests that God plans both good and evil. John's gospel opens by asserting Jesus as Logos ( G3056 ), a title rich with philosophical overtones about the world's original and final causes ( John 1:1–3 ). The evangelist indicates that God created the world, as attested by the Genesis creation account, by referring to Jesus as  Logos , the visible incarnation of his essential nature. God could not have made the world according to mere whim. Creation demonstrates order and complexity, which reflects God's will. Therefore, every natural and moral law is intricately tied to Logos . Thus, evil does not contradict God's existence, but he allows it for morally sufficient, natural reasons. The apostle Paul wrote that Christ set aside his equality with God and emptied himself of his omniscience and omnipotence to save humanity from evil on the cross ( Phil. 2:5–8 ). For this to happen, God must have withdrawn his powers sometime before so that Christ's incarnation would not constitute a change in his nature. By allowing evil to exist, he limited his ability to grant humankind free will. So, the kingdom of heaven inaugurated by Jesus during his earthly ministry represents God's solution to evil—a sharing of responsibility and atonement. Christian doctrine often speaks of God's perfect will and his  permissive will,  separating what he ultimately wants from the possibilities he temporarily allows. That God puts aside his omniscience and omnipotence is a deliberate feat, however, not an essential flaw. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion ​ Theologians and philosophers usually do not integrate the cross into their defenses and theodicies, while most churchgoers do not consider Jesus' crucifixion a straightforward solution to wickedness. Conversely, God intervened in history to overcome evil by sending his only-begotten Son, and he is vindicated for tolerating evil because he shared humankind's anguish and struggle. "Theodicy," which comes from the Greek words Theos ( G2316 ) and dikē ( G1349 ), refers to the theological study of God's justice in the context of evil. ​ Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection brought about victory over evil. In the historic premillennialist view of the end times, the devil was bound in the first century. Paul indicated this much when he told the church at Thessalonica, "And now you know what is holding him back , so that he may be revealed at the proper time. For the secret power of lawlessness is already at work; but the one who now holds it back will continue to do so till he is taken out of the way" ( 2 Thess. 2:6–7 ). Likewise, Jesus' parable of the strong man alludes to the devil's ongoing captivity ( Matt. 12:25–29 ). Even though evil has existed for two millennia since Christ's earthly ministry, the devil has not been allowed to thwart the gospel from being received. Even Paul could write in his own time, "This message has been preached throughout all creation under heaven" ( Col. 1:23 ). In keeping with Jesus' charge to make disciples of all nations, Christians are also part of the solution to evil. It is not enough for Christians to avoid becoming overcome by evil; we are to overcome evil with good ( Rom. 12:21 ). Paul wrote that evil is solely a creation of human free will ( Rom. 1:30 ). While Jesus' passion and resurrection are the sources of evil's downfall, the kingdom of heaven carried out by the church is a continuing resolution toward the same end. After all, he promised that the gates of Hades would not destroy his church ( Matt. 16:18 ). On the last day, Jesus will destroy all malice, and only what has been done in his name will last ( 1 Cor. 3:10–15 )—there will be no more surds or variables. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; whose blessed Son, Jesus the Messiah, came into the world that he might destroy the works of the devil and make us children of God and heirs of eternal life: Grant that, having this hope, we may purify ourselves as he is pure; that, when he comes again with power and great glory, we may be made like him in his eternal and glorious kingdom; where he lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen. Bibliography Beebe, James R. "Logical Problem of Evil." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy . University of Tennessee at Martin. link . Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology . 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013. ​ Evans, C. Stephen, and R. Zachary Manis. Philosophy of Religion: Thinking About Faith . 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009. ​ Hospers, John. An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis . 3rd ed. London: Routledge, 1990. Lewis, C. S. The Problem of Pain . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2001. Swinburne, Richard. Providence and the Problem of Evil . New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Tooley, Michael. "The Problem of Evil."  Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Stanford University. link . Trakakis, Nick. "The Evidential Problem of Evil." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Martin: University of Tennessee at Martin. link . ​ Wright, N. T. "God, 9/11, the Tsunami, and the New Problem of Evil." Response 28, no. 2 (2005). link . ​ ⸻. Evil and the Justice of God . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2006. ​ ⸻. What Good Is God? In Search of a Faith that Matters . New York: FaithWords, 2010.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Capitalism is an "economic system in which most means of production are privately owned, and production is guided and income distributed largely through the operation of markets" (Heilbroner & Boettke). In the United States, Christian conservatives have long viewed capitalism as the economic philosophy most compatible with Christian values, particularly in its emphasis on personal responsibility, individual liberty, and the dignity of work. Over the past decade, we have increasingly embraced populism as a means to champion the needs of the ordinary person against the elite, often secular institutions that seem indifferent to our concerns. In making a Christian conservative case for both capitalism and populism, let us draw from theological and socioeconomic arguments that highlight freedom, morality, and community. Together, capitalism and populism offer a framework that aligns with Christian conservative values, with capitalism encouraging productivity and generosity, and populism giving a voice to communities they feel are marginalized in modern political discourse. In contrast, socialism is the "social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of property and natural resources" (Ball & Dagger, Britannica ). Christian conservative and populist objections to socialism often stem from foundational beliefs about individual freedom, private property, and the role of government. Socialism is inherently incompatible with Scripture, which endorses personal responsibility, charity through voluntary giving rather than enforced redistribution, and the sanctity of private property. For example, God commanded the Israelites to draw property lines among the twelve tribes (e.g., Num. 34 ). Socialism's emphasis on public ownership diminishes individual agency and moral accountability, as it removes personal choice from the act of giving and replaces it with compulsory distribution by the state. Populists, meanwhile, tend to view socialism skeptically because of its association with government control, which they believe erodes personal liberties and leads to bureaucratic overreach. Socialism's model of public ownership concentrates power in the hands of an elite ruling class, contrary to populist ideals of empowering "the people" (Latin: populus ) to control their resources and economic opportunities. Its doctrines threaten the social fabric by undermining traditional family structures, local communities, and religious freedoms, advocating for limited government and community-driven welfare systems as preferable alternatives. On the last point, the apostle Paul taught a similar concept: "Each of you should give what you have decided in your heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver" ( 2 Cor. 9:7 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Capitalism & Christian Ethics The core tenets of capitalism—private property, free markets, and individual responsibility—are closely aligned with Christian teaching. Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises (1881—1973) said, "In the individual human consciousness, economic and ethical values coexist and often affect each other. Praxeology acknowledges this reality, as does the Bible." The Bible consistently emphasizes the dignity of work and the importance of stewardship, which are also central to the capitalist ethic: Whatever you do, work at it with all your heart, as working for the Lord, not for human masters ( Col. 3:23 ). [We urge you to] make it your ambition to lead a quiet life: You should mind your own business and work with your hands, just as we told you, so that your daily life may win the respect of outsiders and so that you will not be dependent on anybody ( 1 Thess. 4:11 ), For even when we were with you, we gave you this rule: "The one who is unwilling to work shall not eat" ( 2 Thess. 3:10 ). Lazy hands make for poverty, but diligent hands bring wealth ( Prov. 10:4 ). The doctrine of praxeology corrects the classical school of economics (1770s–1870s), which advocated for the concept of "economic man" (Latin:  homo economicus ), which divorced morality from economics. Hendrickson observes, "One of the main conclusions drawn from praxeology is that free markets will result in more prosperity than government-directed economic activity–a position that naturally makes Misesian economics popular with conservatives." Christian conservatives often contend that capitalism promotes responsible stewardship of individual resources and talents. Under a capitalist system, we are free to utilize our skills and abilities, creating an environment where success is often the result of diligence and personal effort —qualities that many conservatives consider moral virtues. When individuals have autonomy to decide how to manage their property and income, they are more likely to allocate these resources toward supporting their families, communities, and charitable initiatives. In The Wealth of Nations ( Strahan & Cadell, 1776) , Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith (1723–1790) argued that capitalism can harness self-interest to advance the common good—a perspective echoed by some Christian conservatives who assert that capitalism directs human behavior in ways that reward hard work and ethical conduct. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Role of the Church in Social Welfare Capitalism also aligns with Christian conservative values by supporting the idea that social welfare is best handled by the family, the church, and local communities rather than the state. Under a capitalist system, private individuals and organizations are better positioned to support those in need without state interference, allowing charitable giving to flourish, aligned with biblical teachings. For instance, Jesus calls on us to care for those in need: ​ Then the King will say to those on his right, "Come, you who are blessed by my Father; take your inheritance, the kingdom prepared for you since the creation of the world. For I was hungry and you gave me something to eat, I was thirsty and you gave me something to drink, I was a stranger and you invited me in; I needed clothes and you clothed me, I was sick and you looked after me, I was in prison and you came to visit me." Then he will say to those on his left, "Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels. For I was hungry and you gave me nothing to eat, I was thirsty and you gave me nothing to drink, I was a stranger and you did not invite me in, I needed clothes and you did not clothe me, I was sick and in prison and you did not look after me" ( Matt. 25:34–36 , 41–43 ). However, Jesus made this a personal and voluntary mandate rather than a government-imposed responsibility. Historically, the church has been at the forefront of social services in America, from building hospitals and schools to providing food and housing assistance. Capitalism enables the church to perform these functions without depending on governmental support or becoming entangled in bureaucratic red tape, which often works against the church's mission. Moreover, capitalism enables wealth creation, allowing individuals and families to contribute generously to charity, amplifying the role of faith-based initiatives in society. The Chronicle of Philanthropy reports, " Rather, it is residents of middle-American, conservative, moderate-income, religiously active regions who step up the most." It also " noted that the states that rank highest in charitable giving all voted Republican in the 2012 Presidential election, while all but a couple of the least generous states voted for the Democrat ." The economist Arthur C. Brooks (b. 1964) cites studies showing that conservatives are more likely to engage in activities such as donating blood and volunteering. He credits much of this difference to the comparative religiosity of conservatives. The fact that liberals call for the government to help others while conservatives feel called to help directly also seems to factor into differences in behavior" (" Statistics on U.S. Generosity ," 2016). In other words, Christian conservatives are internally motivated by our faith in Jesus to engage in philanthropy, so we do not require a government mandate to do so. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Christian Case for Populism The Christian conservative embrace of populism is a recent development, essentially a response to feelings of cultural marginalization and globalism. Populism offers a necessary platform to defend traditional values against an increasingly secular and elitist culture. It emphasizes the voice of the ordinary citizen and prioritizes local community needs over elite-driven, often global agendas. Christian conservatives have become skeptical of institutions like large corporations, media outlets, and universities, which they feel increasingly promote secular values that conflict with Christian teachings on issues such as family, sexuality, and the sanctity of life ( see " Marriage: A Coequal Covenant ," " Pastoral Response: Homosexuality ," and " Pastoral Response: Abortion "). This populist response is primarily rooted in a desire to preserve traditional moral values and protect the family unit, which is the foundation of society. Christian conservative populists often advocate for policies that protect local industries, strengthen family values, and restrict the influence of morally questionable cultural messages. As such, populism becomes a vehicle through which Christian conservatives can reassert cultural values and counter the impact of the secular, progressive agenda that dominates mainstream institutions. Jesus and Paul both exemplified forms of populism in their ministries by reaching out directly to ordinary people, often challenging the religious and social elites of their time. Jesus' teachings emphasized the dignity and worth of marginalized individuals, like the poor, sinners, and Samaritans, going against the hierarchical structures upheld by the Pharisees and Sadducees. The Sermon on the Mount, with blessings for the poor and meek, presented a radical re-centering of value on the ordinary people rather than on the privileged or powerful ( Matt. 5–7 ). Similarly, Paul spread the message of Jesus to the Gentiles, promoting a kind of spiritual populism that made salvation accessible to all, irrespective of social class, ethnicity, or adherence to Jewish law ( Gal. 3:28 ). Paul's letters encouraged the early Christian communities to view themselves as equals in Christ, further challenging established social distinctions. Both figures employed egalitarian language and teachings to engage and elevate the masses, laying the groundwork for a movement that appealed to the ordinary people over entrenched authorities. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Populism vs. Elitist Disenfranchisement Christian conservatives have also embraced populism as a response to economic policies that harm working- and middle-class families, many of whom make up our base. While capitalism remains the preferred economic system, Christian conservatives often advocate for an ethical form of capitalism that prioritizes the well-being of vulnerable communities over profit. The erosion of manufacturing jobs and the rise of low-wage service work have left many Christian conservative communities economically vulnerable, fueling a desire for policies that protect American jobs and communities from the adverse effects of globalization and outsourcing. Populism, which emphasizes domestic interests, is a means to ensure that capitalism benefits the average citizen, not just large corporations. Christian conservative populists advocate for policies like limiting immigration and protecting American industry, viewing these as necessary measures to preserve the economic and social stability of American families. Populism thus provides a platform for addressing issues of economic inequality and social dislocation within a capitalist framework, supporting policies that ensure capitalism serves all members of society reasonably. Austro-Bohemian composer Gustav Mahler (1860–1911) said, "Tradition is not the veneration of ashes, but the preservation of fire." As conservatives, our strategy to conserve the foundations of both Christianity and the United States is about continuing what our forefathers did right. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Morality in Capitalism & Populism At the heart of the Christian conservative case for capitalism and populism is a moral argument. Morality is crucial in a capitalist system that rewards initiative and allows individuals to make free choices. Jesus admonished us, "So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets" ( Matt. 7:12 ). Capitalism provides an economic system that allows for voluntary generosity, such as through fair trade and charitable contributions. Likewise, populism is a way to keep the government accountable and responsive to the moral needs of its citizens. Christian conservatives argue that, when guided by moral principles, capitalism can foster a compassionate society that cares for its vulnerable without resorting to coercive state programs. They contend that populism offers a means of countering cultural forces that threaten to erode these values. Christians are responsible for ensuring the economy and government are held to high moral standards. Paleo-Christian Press Roles of the Church & the State ​ How does a post about capitalism relate to the historical-grammatical theme of First Century Christian Faith ? While reading modern political theory into Scripture is anachronistic, the early church could not have envisioned a society in which they would influence the government, let alone participate in a democratic republic. Rome enforced military occupation throughout Judea and did not extend citizenship freely. They even built military barracks and the Antonia Fortress to oversee the temple in Jerusalem. The relationship between the Romans and the Jews was already tense, so the followers of Jesus inherited this tension. Moreover, it intensified when Christians rejected the empire's mandate, "Caesar is lord," while openly proclaiming Jesus as King. Whereas we see "Messiah" primarily as a religious title, the Romans knew what it meant: Jesus was a king to rival all the world's kings—including their emperor ( Luke 23:2 ; John 19:12 ; Acts 17:7 ). When First Century Christian Faith began in 2013, one of our goals was to set politics aside and have Christians focus on biblical theology instead. While we have not entirely abandoned that goal, we recognize that Christians are intricately connected to the outside world. Therefore, we consider capitalism the most suitable political theory in Scripture for addressing God's concerns. In other words, we should have a solution instead of just decrying politics as this-worldly. Although the kingdom of heaven is not of this world, we must show compassion and meet the needs of others before we can introduce it into people's hearts. However, we must be vigilant in not letting politics be our religion ( see " Sacralism: Patriot or Pilgrim "). No politician can meet all our needs, regardless of how honest or effective they may be. They cannot save us from sin or the consequences of evil. Inner peace and salvation belong to God and God alone. For this reason, our Jewish brethren often recite this confession: "Hear, O Israel: The L ORD our God, the L ORD is one" ( Deut. 6:4 ). For the nation of Israel, God established a system of government that we call a  theocracy , the rule of the clergy. He wanted the Jews to be a nation in which no one went hungry, no one who worked lived in poverty, all orphans and widows were provided homes and basic needs, no one was ripped off in the marketplace, all government decrees and court rulings were both fair and just, and all worshiped God in spirit and truth ( see " Money, Mammon & Tithe "). To be sure, Jesus began his ministry with this sermon: The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to set the oppressed free, to proclaim the year of the Lord's favor" ( Luke 4:18–19 ; cf. Isa. 61:1–2 ). This message was not just spiritual but a very loaded sociopolitical one. The "year of the Lord's favor" is the jubilee (Hebrew: yobel ; H3104 ), a period in which God expected the Jews to liberate their debt slaves and return all property to its original owners every fifty years ( Lev. 25:8–10 ). Of course, we can say we Christians are exempt from this law, but why did Jesus repeat it several times? God's concerns for the oppressed and the poor have not gone away under the covenant of grace. The early Christians understood this when they first organized their churches. Soon after Pentecost, "They sold property and possessions to give to anyone who had need " ( Acts 2:45 ). The point is for the church to create a just society, not just a spiritual one. The government's role is to maintain law and order, as Paul wrote: Let everyone be subject to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God. Consequently, whoever rebels against the authority is rebelling against what God has instituted, and those who do so will bring judgment on themselves. For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong. Do you want to be free from fear of the one in authority? Then do what is right and you will be commended.   For the one in authority is God's servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for rulers do not bear the sword for no reason. They are God's servants, agents of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer. Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also as a matter of conscience.   This is also why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God's servants, who give their full time to governing. Give to everyone what you owe them: If you owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor ( Rom. 13:1–7 ). ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion The Christian conservative case for capitalism and populism rests on a shared commitment to individual freedom, personal responsibility, and moral accountability. Capitalism, when tempered by ethical guidelines, aligns with the Christian mandate for stewardship, charity, and the dignity of work. Populism, on the other hand, provides a platform for Christian conservatives to assert the importance of community values and protect their cultural and economic interests in an increasingly globalized and secular world. Capitalism and populism offer a framework that allows us, Christian conservatives, to live out our faith while working towards a society that respects individual freedom and community well-being. We pray for this when we say, "Your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven" ( Matt. 6:10 ). ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe, who has given us this good land for our heritage: may we always prove ourselves as people mindful of your favor and glad to do your will. Bless our land with honorable industry, sound learning, and pure conduct. Save us from violence, discord, and confusion, from pride and arrogance, and from every evil way. Defend our liberties and fashion into one united people; the multitudes brought here out of many kindred and languages. Endue with the spirit of wisdom those to whom, in your name, we entrust the authority of the government that there may be justice and peace at home and that, through obedience to your law, we may show forth your praise among the nations of the earth. In the time of prosperity, fill our hearts with thankfulness, and in the day of trouble, suffer not our trust in you to fail; all of which we ask through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Ball, Terence, and Richard Dagger. "Socialism." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, 2010–present. link . Benestad, J. Brian, Robert Benne, Bruce L. Fields, Thomas W. Heilke, and James K. A. Smith. Five Views on the Church and Politics . Counterpoints. Edited by Amy E. Black and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2015. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ Colson, Charles, and Nancy Pearcey. How Now Shall We Live? Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House, 2004. Cortines, John, and Gregory Baumer. God and Money: How We Discovered True Riches at Harvard Business School . Peabody, MA: Rose, 2016. ⸻. True Riches: What Jesus Really Said About Money and Your Heart . Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2020. Heilbroner, Robert L., and Peter J. Boettke. "Capitalism." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, 2010–present. ( link ). Hendrickson, Mark W. "Misesian Economics and the Bible." Religion & Liberty 7, no. 6. (2010). link . Novak, Michael. The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism . New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982. ⸻. The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism Thirty Years Later . Tysons, VA: Institute for Faith, Work & Economics, 2015. Pahman, Dylan. Foundations of a Free & Virtuous Society . Grand Rapids: Acton Institute for the Study of Religion & Liberty, 2017. "Quotes." Mahler Foundation. 2020. link . Richards, Jay W. Money, Greed, and God: The Christian Case for Free Enterprise—10th Anniversary Edition . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2019. Röpke, Wilhelm. A Humane Economy: The Social Framework of the Free Market . Wilmington, DE: Intercollegiate Studies Institute, 2014. ⸻. The Economics of the Free Society . Translated by Patrick M. Boarman. Chicago: Regnery, 1963. Smith, Adam. An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations . London: Strahan & Cadell, 1776.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Churchgoers often say, "That's biblical," when they argue about their private interpretations or denominational traditions. This habit becomes a problem when multiple people each claim to have "biblical" ideas that contradict one another. However, this dilemma is hardly unique to congregants; church leaders routinely engage in it as well. This article defines what makes an idea "biblical" as opposed to "systematic" in the context of hermeneutics , the study of scriptural interpretation. ​ In the Old Testament, Joseph asked, "Do not interpretations belong to God?" ( Gen. 40:8 ). Likewise, in the New Testament, the apostle Peter warned, "Above all, you must understand that no prophecy of Scripture came about by the prophet's own interpretation of things" ( 2 Pet. 1:20 ). Nowadays, instead of trusting the Bible as we claim to doctrinally, we ask ignorant questions such as, "How do you know that you are right?" The purpose of reading Scripture is to understand what the authors intended to convey to their readers. For example, the evangelist John wrote, "But these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name" ( John 20:31 ). If we ignore John's reason, the logical conclusion is that we may not have eternal life! Therefore, biblical theology examines the literary themes and instructions found in the Bible. In contrast, systematic theology deals with topics that may or may not coincide. Let us further explore these methodological differences and the strengths and weaknesses of each. Courtesy of Thinking Man Films Biblical Theology ​ Biblical theology is the "theology of the Bible," focusing on the actual writers and their relationship with God as he works through history and culture to inspire them. Biblical theologians methodically interpret Scripture with a blend of historical context, cultural background, inductive study, and descriptive teaching. This hermeneutic means "speaking where the Bible speaks and being silent where it remains silent." The apostle Paul gave a similar warning when he wrote, "'Do not go beyond what is written.' Then you will not be puffed up" ( 1 Cor. 4:6 ). For example, a biblical-theological reading of Paul's letters considers what he intended by the word "justification" in his first-century world rather than the doctrines of systematic theologians later in church history ( see " Salvation: The Romans Road "). ​ Biblical theologians prioritize the historical-grammatical method. Instead of arranging scriptural lessons by topic with questions such as, "What does the Bible say about going to church?" they study them in their original format. For example, a biblical theologian knows that Jesus' teaching, "For where two or three are gathered in my name, I'm there with them" ( Matt. 18:20 ), relates to this rabbinical lesson from the Mishnah: "But when two sit together and there are words of Torah spoken between them, the Divine Presence [Hebrew: Shechinah ; H7931 ] rests with them" ( Pirkei Avot 3:3 ). This contrasts with the usual systematic approach by many pastors who read it as, "When Christians read the Bible together, they're having church." ​ Biblical theology employs  inductive reasoning , which involves researching and formulating thoughts to understand what the author intended to convey. Please consider this a conversation with someone, recognizing that we must be good listeners and ask unbiased questions to preserve the relationship and maintain effective communication. Biblical theologians see the authors as real men rather than the sum of their ideas. Finally, they strive to be descriptive by restating Bible themes using the actual words of the writers. Courtesy of Telecinco Cinema Systematic Theology ​ According to Merriam-Webster, systematic theology is "a branch of theology concerned with summarizing the doctrinal traditions of a religion (such as Christianity), especially to relate the traditions convincingly to the religion's present-day setting." Simply put, the main goal of a systematic theologian is to justify a denominational or otherwise sectarian doctrine by reading it into the Bible. However, if we only read biblical theology, we would have no tools to apply the gospel in our context. Theologians systematize the Bible to unify all the verses on a given topic, creating a unified doctrine. The problem is that when we take verses out of their literary or historical context in ways the authors never intended, we can make the Bible say anything. Furthermore, systematic theologians often ignore or twist verses, and even whole passages, that do not fit their doctrines. For example, Paul's teachings in  Romans 9  and  Romans 10  feature themes of God's sovereignty and human free will. Yet, most church leaders teach their people to emphasize one. The ancient readers of Paul's letters did not perceive a contradiction between predestination and free will, as we often do today ( see " God's Will & Our Free Choices "). ​ Systematic theology is helpful for recent questions the Bible may not answer directly or for ones that seem to give conflicting ideas. For example, the early church needed to reconcile how Jesus could be God incarnate while teaching monotheism. So, they systematized the Trinity as doctrine ( see " Trinity: Jewish & Gentile Views "). While the early church leaders read Scripture, they compiled all the verses that describe God's intrapersonal relationships between the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. After this, they had to apply logic to create a coherent system for teaching all Christians. However, we must be careful not to make rash statements like, "The Bible says that God is a Trinity," when the authors never made such a claim. This faulty thinking led the Catholic Church to pressure Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536) to add the Johannine Comma to 1 John 5:7–8 ("For there are three that testify: the testify in heaven: the Father, the Word, and the Holy Spirit, and these three are one. And there are three that testify on earth: the Spirit, the water and the blood; and the three are in agreement") in the 1522 Novum instrumentum omne , the first edition of the Textus Receptus ("Received Text"). Because the scriptures do not overtly say that God is triune, some church leaders added these verses to the text. Likewise, the "Jehovah's Witnesses" rewrote John 1:1 ("In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God") in their defective New World Translation (NWT) to teach against the Trinity. The Old and New Testaments forbid us from adding or removing words from the Bible ( Deut. 4:2 ,  12:32 ;  Rev. 22:18–19 ; cf.  Matt. 5:18 ). While systematic theology has its uses, it should always complement biblical theology and never attempt to contradict it. Paleo-Christian Press Conclusion Biblical theology and systematic theology are two approaches to understanding Christian beliefs. Biblical theology focuses on understanding the Bible's original meaning by examining its historical and cultural context. Systematic theology, on the other hand, organizes the teachings of the Bible into doctrines and beliefs that apply today. Both methods are valuable, but it is essential to interpret the Bible's message faithfully, avoiding modern ideas that might distort the original intent. This balance helps deepen our understanding of the Christian faith. Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; in your wise providence, you appoint leaders for your church's mission. Offer grace to us, your servants, to whom responsibility is now given: so empower us with the truth of sound doctrine, and endue us with the holiness of life, that we may faithfully serve before you to the glory of your great name, and the benefit of your holy church; through Jesus Christ our Lord, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Alexander, T. Desmond, Brian S. Rosner, D. A. Carson, and Graeme Goldsworthy. New Dictionary of Biblical Theology: Exploring the Unity and Diversity of Scripture . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2000. Augustine, Jeff. "What Is the Difference Between Systematic Theology and Biblical Theology?" Back to College (blog). Colorado Christian University. March 2021. link . Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., Daniel M. Doriani, Kevin J. Vanhoozer, William J. Webb, Mark L. Strauss, Al Wolters, and Christopher J. H. Wright. Four Views on Moving Beyond the Bible to Theology . Counterpoints. Edited by Gary T. Meadors and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. ​ Köstenberger, Andreas. "What is Biblical Theology?" For the Church (blog). Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. December 17, 2019. link . ​ Levine, Joseph M. "Erasmus and the Problem of the Johannine Comma." Journal of the History of Ideas 58, no. 4 (1997): 573–96. link . ​ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. Miert, Dirk van, Henk Nellen, Piet Steenbakkers, and Jetze Touber, eds. Scriptural Authority and Biblical Criticism in the Dutch Golden Age: God's Word Questioned . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2017. ​ Poythress, Vern. "The Relationship Between Systematic Theology and Biblical Theology." Between Two Worlds Evangelical History (blog). The Gospel Coalition. July 22, 2010. link . Waggoner, Earl. "Biblical Studies vs. Theological Studies." Back to College (blog). Colorado Christian University. April 2019. link . Wright, N. T. Interpreting Scripture: Essays on the Bible and Hermeneutics . Collected Essays of N. T. Wright. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2020.

Paleo-Christian Press Introduction Does the Revelation to John refer to past, present, or future events? We must enter John's first-century setting in Patmos to answer this question. He was a captive on the island, a prison colony for enemies of the Roman Empire. John had something to say to his original audience and later generations. Therefore, the twin theological positions of this article are partial preterism and historic premillennialism . In other words, Revelation mentions first-century events in a context that serves as a typological preview of both past and future events. If the kingdom of heaven is "now and not yet" ( Luke 17:20–21 , 19:11 ), the end times have been partially realized while others await us. ​ Full preterism is the eschatological position that all end-time events occurred in the first century, including the return of Jesus. However, partial preterism views many parts of his discourse at the Mount of Olives ( Matt. 24:3–25:46 ; Mark 13:3–37 ; Luke 21:5–36 ) as "now and not yet." Full preterists believe Jesus returned in AD 70 when the Romans destroyed the Second Temple. Conversely, partial preterists generally view this eschaton as something that will occur in the future. We must be vigilant for Jesus' return, so belief in historic premillennialism seems most aligned with Scripture. This view was the early church's consensus for its first three hundred years. It is historic for this reason and because it differs from the dispensational premillennialism (i.e., the scriptural timeline features many dispensations) more commonly known by Christians today. Premillennialists of both types believe the literal millennium will occur after Jesus' second coming but before the resurrection of the living and the dead. Wirestock Antichrist: Man of Lawlessness ​ John wrote about the antichrist spirit in his first epistle and the Revelation he received. He warned that many antichrists would deceive humankind ( 1 John 2:18 ) and even alluded to one in particular: Nero (r. AD 54–68). Revelation is somewhat of a political document that criticizes the Roman Empire ("Babylon"), particularly its cruel and self-proclaimed emperor. John defined the antichrist as anyone who denies that Jesus is the Messiah ( 1 John 2:22 ). Dispensationalists view the antichrist as the devil incarnate. In contrast, historic premillennialists view him as an ordinary political leader, like many before him. The antichrist is not more evil than other dictators, but exists when God arranges for him. Historic premillennialists say that Revelation describes first-century events, especially the persecutions of Nero and Domitian (r. AD 81–96) against the church, as typologies of future tribulations. Their hermeneutic formula is "now and not yet" because Jesus and his apostles warned of things that were coming in their time and those that were yet to happen. Therefore, it is prudent to say that emperor Nero was the antichrist for the early church and, more like him, has manifested ever since. For example, he was the Caesar who executed both Peter and Paul in AD 64. Historically speaking, leaders such as "Bloody Mary" Tudor (r. 1553–1558), Napoleon Bonaparte (r. 1804–1815), Joseph Stalin (in off. 1922–1952), or Adolf Hitler (in off. 1933–1945) have been associated with the role of the antichrist. Although various sociopolitical pressures contributed to the persecution of Christians by these dictators, the central tenet of Christianity that "Jesus alone is Lord" challenged their rule. Simply put, antichrists fear the existence of a rival kingdom within their territories. That the church's persecution continues proves God's kingdom exists alongside the realm of darkness. Jesus taught that it does not come from this world ( John 18:36 ) but endures within the church ( Luke 17:21 ). In his parable of the strong man, Christ also referred to the binding of the devil ( Matt. 12:27–29 ), allowing the church to fulfill the Great Commission ( Matt. 28:19–20 ). Even in his time, Paul witnessed how the gospel "has been proclaimed to every creature under heaven" ( Col. 1:23 ). He also said to the Thessalonians, "And now you know what is holding him [i.e., the man of lawlessness] back, so that he may be revealed at the proper time" ( 2 Thess. 2:6 ). Upon release, the antichrist will hinder the gospel one last time, something lesser antichrists have been unable to do. Interestingly, the "Freer Logion" in the Codex Washingtonianus , quoted by Jerome of Stridon (c. 347–c. 419) in his treatise Against Pelagius , corroborated the first-century binding of the devil: And [the disciples] excused themselves, saying, "This age of lawlessness and unbelief is under Satan, who does not allow the truth and power of God to prevail over the unclean things of the spirits. Therefore, reveal your righteousness now"—thus they spoke to Christ. And Christ replied to them, "The term of years of Satan's power has been fulfilled, but other terrible things draw near. And for those who have sinned, I was handed over to death, that they may return to the truth and sin no more, that they may inherit the spiritual and imperishable glory of righteousness that is in heaven" ( Mark 16:14  New Revised Standard Version, footnote A). As the realized eschatology of full preterism holds, the emperor Nero was not the final antichrist. However, John included symbols pointing to Nero because he was an immediate example of the ultimate antichrist to come. Since Julius Caesar's (r. 46–44 BC) assassination in 44 BC, the Roman Senate has declared each subsequent emperor a god after their death. However, Nero was the first Roman emperor to claim divinity while still alive. For example, the coins he minted as the official Roman currency featured sunbeams alluding to the sun god Apollo. In the Jewish mind, such a claim was blasphemy, and using Nero's coins was likely considered idolatry or worshiping graven images. Also in view was the fiscus Judaicus , the "Jewish tax" imposed by the emperor Vespasian (r. AD 69–79) on all Jews following the sack of Jerusalem in AD 70. The fiscus Judaicus forced the Jews to give money to the Jupiter Capitolinus temple in Rome after Vespasian destroyed their temple. In Revelation, John used the Greek noun charagma ( G5480 ) when describing the "mark" of the beast ( Rev. 13:16–17 , 14:9 , 11 , 16:2 , 19:20 , 20:4 ). In this context, charagma was a coin engraved with Nero's likeness and his claim to divinity. Luke also used the word precisely when Paul told the Athenian philosophers that human beings are made in the image of God rather than by graven images ( Acts 17:29 ). Just as Christ rebuked the leaders of Israel for yielding to the emperor instead of God ( Matt. 22:20–21 ; Mark 12:16–17 ; Luke 20:24–25 , 23:2 ), John admonished the early church to avoid Nero's coinage. He also warned of the economic impact regarding the inability to buy or sell without official currency ( Rev. 13:17 ). Stated plainly, the final antichrist will not just be a leader who denies the divinity of Jesus Christ but one who also persecutes the church. He will jeopardize the safety of individual Christians and isolate us from civil society. The worst example of Nero committing such an evil deed was the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, which he blamed on the Christians to justify slaughtering them. Paleo-Christian Press Mark of the Beast in Revelation The mark of the beast also has a decidedly Jewish meaning. Deuteronomy includes a passage in which God commands the Israelites to acknowledge his sovereignty, to love him steadfastly, and to mark their foreheads and their hands with his precepts ( Deut. 6:8–9 ; Matt. 23:5 ). Jews often wear small leather boxes called tefillin ( H8605 , "prayers") or phulaktēria ( G5440 , "phylacteries") in keeping with God's law. Thus, the mark of the beast has a religious and spiritual dimension, not just a socioeconomic one. An antichrist tefillah reminds the wearer to disobey God and reject him outright. John warned the early Christians that God would judge anyone who received the mark at the end of the world ( Rev. 14:9–11 ). It is not enough for the devil to tempt humans, but to offer himself as a counterfeit deity with a false gospel. Thus, the antichrist is his copy of Jesus Christ for the fallen world. With a risen Christ, there must be a risen antichrist. Thereby, John reportedly saw a beast with ten horns and seven heads, one of which had been mortally wounded but miraculously healed ( Rev. 13:1–3 ). Rome is the beast, a city known to have encompassed the traditional seven hills of Palatine, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Aventine, and Capitoline. Its seven heads are various emperors, starting from Julius Caesar and continuing through Nero, the latter being the wounded but restored head. When John wrote Revelation, he probably had some source material. For example, the Sibylline Oracles mention a Roman folk belief that Nero did not commit suicide in AD 68, but was instead plotting an insurgency against the empire from his Parthian stronghold ( Sibylline Oracles 4.155–65 ). In his footnotes for this passage in Revelation, American theologian Milton S. Terry wrote, "Nero, whose murder of his mother is notorious, and whose flight beyond the Euphrates and expected return as antichrist was a superstitious tradition long maintained" ( Sibylline Oracles 4.155 ). Coincidentally, the Roman historians Tacitus (c. AD 56–120), Suetonius (c. AD 69–122), and the Greek philosopher Dio Chrysostom (c. AD 40–110) accounted for three men who attempted revolts while claiming to be Nero resurrected. It is also possible that Domitian could have been the Nero redivivus metaphorically, that another wicked emperor like Nero took his place. Either way, the mark of the beast is a graven image of a false god upon the forehead—the center of abstract thought and order—and the hand that carries out what the mind plans. The antichrist to come will likely find a modern device that he can use to control one's ability to buy or sell. He will also use it to accuse God's people on a spiritual level. Paleo-Christian Press 666 & 616: Number of His Name​ ​ John said that the antichrist was just a man. He advised the reader to identify the antichrist by calculating the mathematical value of his name: 666 ( Rev. 13:18 ). Some manuscripts of Revelation have 616 instead of 666 as the antichrist's number, but only to make the same reference to Nero in the Latin language ( Nro Qsr ) as in the original Greek ( Nron Qsrn ) when transliterated into the Hebrew alphabet. Some of the original Greek manuscripts of Revelation use this shorthand instead of writing out the words χξϛ (i.e., the letters chi, xi, and stigma) or χξϝ with a digamma representing the number six. John's warning is about a human being, not the devil incarnate. The man of sin will be a political leader who may not even know he is the antichrist, rather than just a disbeliever in God. Just as the emperor Nero had more than a few Roman citizens who admired him, the antichrist was a celebrated ruler. The best example in modern times was Adolf Hitler, who mesmerized an entire nation so much that it venerated his name as a greeting (e.g., "Heil Hitler"). Yet, even a monster like Hitler succumbed to defeat and was no devil in disguise. Courtesy of the Institute on Religion & Democracy Times of the Gentiles Fulfilled In Luke's gospel, Jesus warned his disciples about an imminent sack of Jerusalem. His prophecy referred to the conquest of Jerusalem in AD 70 by the Roman general Titus (AD 39–81). Thus, the Gentile domination of Judea's capital was a pending reality. However, Jesus also anticipated a time when such a Gentile rule would end ( Luke 21:24 ). This passage exemplifies the realized eschatology refrain, "now and not yet." The conquest of Jerusalem happened within one generation of Christ's foretelling according to his Olivet discourse ( Matt. 24:34 ). Likewise, Gentile dominion over Jerusalem ended on June 10, 1967, when the Israeli Defense Forces recaptured the city after defeating Egypt, Jordan, and Syria in the Six-Day War (pictured above). The identity of Israel is where historic premillennialists disagree with their dispensationalist counterparts ( see " Israel: Election & Identity "). In historic premillennialism, Israel is either the church replacing or reconciling with the Jews. Dispensationalists consider the modern State of Israel the rightful heir to the ancient Kingdom of Israel. Whereas the former do not generally weigh Jesus' prophecy about the "times of the Gentiles," the latter seemingly consider it too much. For nearly two millennia following the sack of Jerusalem in AD 70, Gentiles in the form of Roman soldiers, Byzantine imperialists, European crusaders, Islamic armies, and British colonizers occupied the city. Premillennialists should consider this fact alone meaningful, mainly because Jesus foretold it. Just as the biblical authors proclaimed the end times, "now and not yet," the identity of Israel is also twofold. Jesus referred to the final occupiers of Jerusalem as "Gentiles," who turned out to be Great Britain, then a culturally Christian nation. Paul declared the Jews' refusal of Jesus as their Messiah "a close relationship between God and the world" ( Rom. 11:15 ). In other words, salvation came to the world's other nations because God's chosen people rejected him. However, Paul carefully warned his Roman audience that Israel , the Jewish people, is the original olive tree, and they are merely secondary beneficiaries ( Rom. 11:17–24 ). The church does not, nor will it ever, supersede national Israel. Historic premillennialists and dispensationalists teach an "either/or" dichotomy in which Israel must be the church or the Jewish people. Not only did Paul identify God's people as two separate yet reciprocal communities, but John did as well. Dispensationalists typically identify the two olive trees and lampstands of Revelation as Moses and Elijah, but John likely referred to old-covenant Israel and new-covenant Christendom. Consider the menorah's relevance in ancient and modern Jewish liturgy. The apostles Paul and John wrote about the same reality: God chose the Jewish people and the disciples of Jesus to proclaim his precepts. Interestingly, John described how the antichrist would attack both witnesses and encourage the world to celebrate their deaths. However, God resurrected these lampstands after three days; at the same time, he allowed Jesus to experience death. Although the State of Israel may provide the world with a tangible community of Jews, it does not necessarily imply that the eschaton is imminent. The world's persecution of Israel and the church will continue until it escalates to warfare against them. The final antichrist will lead the charge against the two olive trees and lampstands that bear witness to God's righteousness. When John wrote about the "nations" (i.e., Gentiles) that will revolt against the witnesses, he was referring to those people outside of God's old and new covenants ( Rev. 11:1–14 ). Thus, the downfall of the antichrist and his followers will be the ultimate fulfillment of the times of the Gentiles. Paleo-Christian Press Arrival of the King In full preterist eschatology, ​Jesus returned in AD 70 to visit his wrath on national Israel for their rejection of his Messiahship. However, the parousia ( G3952 ; "arrival") must happen with knowledge of the entire world ( Rev. 1:7 ), to be announced with seven trumpets ( Rev. 8 ff.). Every knee will bow to Jesus, including all humans and angels in heaven, on earth, and those who died ( Phil. 2:9–11 ). However, the "trumpets" are not just any trumpets, but the shofar ( H7782 , "ram horn"). Jews only blow it on their most important feast days. A shofar blast launched the siege of Jericho ( Josh. 6:4–20 ), served as a call to repentance ( Isa. 58:1 ; Hos. 8:1 ), gathered people for assembly and worship ( Num. 10:3 ; Ps. 47:6 ), and announced the official visits of kings. Therefore, it symbolizes the end times. Today, the Jews most commonly associate the shofar with their New Year (Hebrew: Rosh ha-Shanah ; H7218 , H8141 , "head of the year") and the Day of Atonement (Hebrew: Yom Kippur ; H3118 , H3725 ). The time between these holidays is known as the "Days of Awe," a period of intense personal and national reflection and repentance. Consider how we make New Year's resolutions to improve ourselves. The most significant use of the shofar is the Lord's day and the end of the age ( Isa. 27:13 ; Joel 2:1 ). Jesus himself will blow the "great shofar" when he returns, following great days of awe and repentance worldwide ( 1 Cor. 15:51–57 ; 1 Thess. 4:16 ). ​ The Jewish festivals give us a clue about God's timeline for the eschaton. We must be careful not to set dates, as Jesus forbids us ( Matt. 24:36 , 25:13 ; Mark 13:32 ). However, the Father provided the Jews a calendar to know how he acts in the world. For example, Jesus is the Lamb of God who takes away the world's sins. Jesus was crucified on the day of preparation for the Passover (Hebrew: Pesach ; H6453 ) while the lambs were being slaughtered for the Passover meal that evening. The Feast of Unleavened Bread points to Jesus' sinless nature, the perfect sacrifice for our sins. His body was laid in the grave during the initial days of this feast. Likewise, Jesus' resurrection took place on the day of Firstfruits (Hebrew: Bikkurim ; H1061 ), as he became the "firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep" ( 1 Cor. 15:20 ). Pentecost (Hebrew: Shavuot ; H7620 )—fifty days after Jesus' resurrection—implies the excellent soul harvest of those who enter God's kingdom. Jesus inaugurated the Christian church on this day when he poured out the Holy Spirit. ​ The three months between Shavuot and Rosh ha-Shanah typify the current age of Christendom. Therefore, the three fall feasts have yet to be fulfilled in the life and work of Jesus the Messiah. He fulfilled the first four feasts on their days, so the last three will most likely be fulfilled on the actual days, too. We cannot be certain how they will be fulfilled. Still, they will probably correspond like so: 1) Rosh ha-Shana illustrates the parousia when Jesus appears in the heavens as a bridegroom coming for his bride, the church, 2) Yom Kippur signifies the day of Jesus' return, the Day of Atonement for the Jewish remnant when they will look on "the one they have pierced," repent of their sins, and receive him as their Messiah ( Zech. 12:10 ; Rom. 11:1–6 , 25–36 ) and, 3) Sukkot —the Festival of Booths—points to God's promise that he will once again tabernacle with his people when he returns to reign over the world from Jerusalem ( Mic. 4:1–7 ). If the Jewish calendar, which marks the traditional date given to the earth's creation, sets the pattern for the end times, this makes the upcoming millennial reign of Jesus a type of Sabbath. The Talmud states the Messiah will come before 6000 ( Rosh ha-Shanah 31 ; Sanhedrin 97 ). Early church leaders such as Irenaeus of Lugdunum (c. AD 130–202) also believed that Jesus would return after six days, following the biblical timescale of sevens and sabbaths. The first century was the fourth millennium for the Jews, so we are now in their sixth. This year is 5785–86 by Jewish reckoning, corresponding to AD 2025 on the Gregorian calendar. Could the Lord come to us by the end of the third millennium? Paleo-Christian Press Conclusion Historic premillennialism, as a whole, prioritizes biblical, historical, and theological data as a hermeneutic foundation. It has a human face and is not afraid to delve into the depths of human depravity to explore the potential antichrist spirit within us all. Conversely, dispensationalism too often portrays the antichrist as something  other than what it is , never allowing individuals to ensure they have adequately put away the antichrist spirit within themselves. Like Nero, everyone can exalt themselves over God and commit heinous sins against him. Nonetheless, whenever a dispensationalist identifies a man as an "antichrist," they accurately see the evil within all humankind. However, Christians must prioritize their goodness over their wickedness if they love God and their neighbors. As Paul said, Christians love their fellows by assuming the best of them ( 1 Cor. 13:7 ). The debate between premillennialists and dispensationalists seems to pit metaphor and allegory against literalism and commonsense interpretation. However, both eschatological positions are more complex than they often appear. Historic premillennialists readily admit that evil exists and that it influences history. For this reason, the kingdom of heaven continues simultaneously with the church's great tribulation. John indicated that God permits the world to exist in its fallen state until the maximum number of souls have gained salvation ( Rev. 6:11 ). In his parable of the weeds among the wheat, Jesus taught the church that sinners will coexist with saints until the end of the world ( Matt. 13:24–30 ). This lesson challenges the majority of dispensationalist views that Christ will rapture the church before the tribulation. Conversely, the church experiences the great tribulation as much as it does the kingdom of heaven. The world will continue this way until the antichrist—Nero, resurrected—makes his final challenge to God and receives the due penalty for his rebellion. Thus, the mark of God is faith, while the mark of the beast is faithlessness. Perhaps we speak too much about the mark of the beast and not enough about the seal of the Spirit. Whereas the devil marks those who oppose God before the last day, God makes sure to seal us in our hearts for the day of redemption ( 2 Cor. 1:22 , 5:5 ; Eph. 1:13–14 , 4:30 ; 1 Pet. 1:5 ; Rev. 7:3–4 , 9:4 , 14:1 , 22:4 ). Jesus warned us to keep watch, to pray, and to be ready for his return ( Mark 13:23 ; Luke 21:36 ). For this reason, he did not partake in the third cup of wine during his Last Supper, a Passover meal. The four cups represent the expressions of God's deliverance: I will bring you out from under the yoke of the Egyptians. I will free you from being slaves to them, and I will redeem you with an outstretched arm and with mighty acts of judgment. I will take you as my own people, and I will be your God. Then you will know that I am the L ORD your God, who brought you out from under the yoke of the Egyptians ( Exod. 6:6–7 ). The first cup represents holiness, the second deliverance, the third redemption, and the fourth praise. Jesus, being the Redeemer, did not have to drink from the redemption cup, so he did not partake of it during the Last Supper. We await the cup of praise on the last day, when we partake of it with Jesus in God's kingdom ( Matt. 26:29 ; Luke 22:18 ). As John wrote, "He who testifies to these things says, 'Yes, I am coming soon.' Amen. Come, Lord Jesus" ( Rev. 22:20 ). ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; by the resurrection of your Son on the first day of the week, you conquered sin, put death to flight, and gave us the hope of everlasting life: Redeem all our days by this victory; forgive our sins, banish our fears, make us bold to praise you and to do your will; and steel us to wait for the consummation of your kingdom on the last great day; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. ​ Bard, Mitchell G. "Jewish Concepts: Tefillin." Jewish Virtual Library. link . Beale, G. K. The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. ​ Blackwell, Ben C., John K. Goodrich, and Jason Maston, eds. Reading Revelation in Context: John's Apocalypse and Second Temple Judaism . Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2019. Blaising, Craig A., Kenneth L. Gentry Jr., and Robert B. Strimple. Three Views on the Millennium and Beyond . Counterpoints. Edited by Darrell L. Bock and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999. ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ Boring, M. Eugene. Revelation: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching . Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2011. Cohen, Shaye J. D. "The Fiscus Judaicus and the Parting of the Ways." Biblical Archaeological Society. October 10, 2012. link . ​ Cory, Catherine A. The Book of Revelation—New Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament Pt. 12 . Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 2006. ​ ​​​Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014.​ Dunstan, William E. Ancient Rome . Lanham, MD: Littlefield & Rowman, 2011. Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr., Sam Hamstra Jr., and Robert L. Thomas. Four Views on the Book of Revelation . Counterpoints. Edited by C. Marvin Pate and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998. ​ Heemstra, Marius. "The Fiscus Judaicus and the Parting of the Ways." Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2, no. 277 (2010). link . ​ Hill, Craig C. In God's Time: The Bible and the Future . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002. Intrater, Keith, and Daniel Juster. Israel, the Church, and the Last Days: Understanding the Last Days, the Hope of the World, the Church, the Kingdom of God . Shippensburg, PA: Destiny Image, 2003. ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. Lumbroso, Gavriel. Yochanan (John) Presents the Revelation of Yeshua the Messiah: A Messianic Commentary . Clarksville, MD: Messianic Jewish Publications, 2018. MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. Marshall, I. Howard, Stephen Travis, and Ian Paul. Exploring the New Testament Vol. 2: A Guide to the Letters and Revelation . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2002. ​ Parker, D. C. The Living Text of the Gospels . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997. ​ Parsons, John J. "Significance of the Shofar." Hebrew for Christians. link . ​ Sherman, Steven L. The Last Days Calendar: Understanding God's Appointed Times . Enumclaw, WA: Redemption, 2003.​ Smallwood, E. Mary. "Domitian's Attitude Toward Jews and Judaism." Classical Philology 51, no. 1 (1956): 1–13. link . Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020.​ Terry, Milton S. The Sibylline Oracles Translated from the Greek into English Blank Verse . New York: Eaton & Mains, 1899. ​ Witherington, Ben, III. A Week in the Fall of Jerusalem . A Week in the Life. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2017. Wright, N. T. How God Became King: The Forgotten Story of the Gospels . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016.

Phil Goodwin Introduction The Axial Age spanned from approximately 500 to 300 BC, during which the world's major religious and spiritual traditions emerged in Israel, Greece, India, and China. However, the Axial Age concept is controversial among many scholars of religion; its character and boundaries, particularly in terms of space and time, remain unclear. German philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883–1969) developed the Axial Age theory, observing that most world religions (e.g., Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Judaism) trace their origins to the first millennium BC. In his book, The Origin and Goal of History (Routledge, 2021), Jaspers wrote: Confucius and Lao Tzu were living in China, and all the schools of Chinese philosophy came into being, including those of Mot Tzu, Zhuang Zhou, Lieh Tzu, and a host of others; India produced the Upanishads and Buddha and, like China, ran the whole gamut of philosophical possibilities down to materialism, skepticism, and nihilism; in Persia, Zoroaster taught a challenging view of the world as a struggle between good and evil; in Israel, the prophets made their appearance from Elijah by way of Isaiah and Jeremiah . . . Greece witnessed the arrival of Homer, of the philosophers—Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Plato—of the tragedians, of Thucydides and Archimedes. Everything implied by these names developed during these few centuries almost simultaneously in China, India, and the West (p. 2). The Axial Age continues to inspire many of our current religious, spiritual, and philosophical movements, drawing from the teachings of Socrates, Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Buddha, Confucius, Lao Tzu, and the Hebrew prophets. ​ Courtesy of Thinking Man Films Cognitive Transformation ​ Jaspers observed, "Measured against the lucid humanity of the Axial Period, a strange veil seems to lie over the most ancient cultures preceding it, as though the man had not yet really come to himself" (p. 7). In other words, humankind still needed to meet its potential for greatness. When we compare our technological age to prehistory, it is evident that humans gradually developed more complex societies and tools. Even between the Old and New Testaments, there are significant transformations, as the harsh reality of the Law of Moses is contrasted with the abstract practice of the heart ( Gal. 4:5–7 ). For this reason, Jesus added, "with all your mind" to the standard Jewish summary of the Law: "Hear, O Israel: The L ORD our God, the L ORD is one. Love the L ORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength" ( Deut. 6:4–6 ; cf. Mark 12:29–31 ). Why did he do this? God did not yet trust the Israelites to obey his commandments with their hearts, so he only required them to follow the Law. Hence, the New Testament teaches spiritual renewal and transformation more. Likewise, Paul of Tarsus wrote, "Do not conform to the pattern of this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind. Then you will be able to test and approve what God's will is—his good, pleasing and perfect will" ( Rom. 12:2 ). While the Old Testament emphasized strict legal obedience, the New Testament focused on discernment. Coincidentally, Moses wrote the Torah (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; see " Moses' Authorship & Editors ") before the Axial Age, while the New Testament was written afterward. The Hebrew prophets (e.g., Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel) bridged the gap between the harsh legalism of the Law of Moses and the grace taught by Jesus and Paul. Religion scholars include the prophets in their lists of Axial Age teachers, as Jaspers did. Generally speaking, the Hebrew prophets lived during the same periods as the Greek philosophers, and their ideas occasionally intersected. For example, Hellenistic Jewish thinker Philo of Alexandria (c. 15 BC–c. AD 50) allegorized the Old Testament to make it respectable to Greek readers. Unlike the texts of other world religions, the Bible chronicles the entire cognitive transformation from muthos ( G3454 , "myth" or "fable") to logos ( G3056 , "word" or "speech"). As a result of this change, humankind shifted from relying on narrative stories and folklore to explain natural occurrences—we began to study the evidence itself. Simon Peter made a note of this cognitive transformation when he wrote, "For we did not follow cleverly devised stories when we told you about the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ in power, but we were eyewitnesses of his majesty" ( 2 Pet. 1:16 ). Conversely, the Jewish sect known as Sadducees denied all abstract knowledge, choosing to keep the Law as literal as possible ( Acts 23:8 ). The Axial Age even drew a line in first-century Judaism, dividing these Sadducees from the Pharisees and the Jesus movement who acknowledged both Law and heart. ​ John son of Zebedee wrote, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God" ( John 1:1 ). Logos is the Greek noun translated as "Word," referring to the Genesis creation narrative when God made the universe through mere speech (Gen. 1:3). John was testifying that Jesus was the divine Logos that God spoke at creation ( see " Creation & Intelligent Design "). Beginning with Heraclitus (c. 540–c. 480 BC), various Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle (384–322 BC), employed it to define universal governing principles of order, absolute truth, and reason. Today, we have "scientific laws" such as gravity and thermodynamics to explain the concept of Logos . Religion scholars see the Axial Age development of Logos as a separation from the old myths, a cognitive transformation from narrative allegory to logical analysis. So, when John reinterpreted Genesis to identify Jesus as the divine  Logos , it was to convey the same message that Moses had conveyed narratively in an analytical fashion. Incidentally, Chinese translators of the New Testament use the word Tao to render Logos , deriving from another Axial Age teacher, Lao Tzu (fl. sixth century BC), who wrote Taoism's most formative text, Tao Te Ching . The Chinese consider Tao the governing rule of the universe, whose essential being exists beyond human reason. They even view Tao as the modern East Asian definition of "science" and an ordered set of holistic beliefs. ​ Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Behavioral Transformation Some scholars of religion, such as Karen Armstrong, Nicolas Baumard, Alexandre Hyafil, and Pascal Boyer, believe that the Axial Age was more of a behavioral transformation than a cognitive one. They argue that environmental changes and the shift from hunter-gatherer societies to nation-states caused people to behave differently. Before the Axial Age, humans formed civilizations based on a collective and uniform desire to meet their basic needs. Afterward, they focused on individual virtues such as self-discipline and self-denial, which are reinforced by nearly all world religions today. Jesus cited Leviticus when he taught these virtues: "So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets" ( Matt. 7:12 ; cf. Lev. 19:18 ). This ethic of reciprocity—"Golden Rule"—epitomizes the behavioral transformation. It can be found in most Axial Age religions and philosophies, spanning from the Mediterranean to the Far East. One generation before Jesus, the esteemed Jewish rabbi Hillel the Elder (c. 110 BC–AD 10) used the same Leviticus verse to teach reciprocity as the most critical lesson in the Torah. When a Gentile challenged Hillel to explain the Torah while standing on one foot, he said: "That which is hateful to you do not do to another; that is the entire Torah, and the rest is its interpretation. Go study" ( Talmud, Shabbat 31a:6 ). Jesus, Paul, and James each taught that doers of the Law, not just hearers, will receive justification from God ( Matt. 7:24 ; Rom. 2:13 ; James 1:22–25 ). Therefore, cognition must lead to behavior. ​ The fact that both Hillel and Jesus quoted Leviticus to teach reciprocity demonstrates a precedent for behavioral transformation in pre-Axial Age literature. God planted the seeds of knowledge and wisdom in the Torah. He then watered those seeds, beginning with the Israelite kings David and Solomon. The Hebrew prophets were the buds on this tree of knowledge, and Jesus' teaching was its maturity in full bloom. Paul testified, "Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, the new creation has come: The old has gone, the new is here!" ( 2 Cor. 5:17 ). Though the tree of the knowledge of good and evil was forbidden to Adam and Eve in the garden ( Gen. 2:17 ), Revelation includes a brand-new tree of life for all nations ( Rev. 2:7 , 22:2 , 14 , 19 ). Perhaps it was no coincidence that Mary Magdalene confused Jesus for a gardener! ( John 20:15 ). Stated plainly, it was always God's will for humankind to behave wisely with full knowledge of all things good ( see " Humankind & Ancestral Sin "). So, when God punished Adam and Eve for their sin, he enacted a plan to save us from sin and death through his only-begotten Son, Jesus ( Gen. 3:15 ;  John 3:16 ). Theologically, the Axial Age was a time of God's mercy for all people, including both Jews and Gentiles. He trusted us with more and more knowledge that we may seek and find him wherever we are ( Acts 17:27 ). Ironically, many critics do not like the term "Axial Age" because it implies that a common source—a zeitgeist , a spirit of the age—inspired sages from East to West to draw similar conclusions about the world. As Christians, we know this inspiration to be the Holy Spirit, who draws all people to himself ( John 12:32 ). Paul declared, "Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father" ( Phil. 2:9–11 ). Paul also gave us this essential Christian historiography: ​ [Jesus] the Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation. For in him, all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. He is before all things, and in him all things hold together ( Col. 1:15–17 ). ​ Anna Kurmaeva Axial Epilogue: Paul at the Areopagus ​ The Areopagus was the court of Athens, which met at Ares' Hill (Greek: Arieos Pagos ; G697 ) near the Acropolis and the Parthenon (pictured above). It decided criminal cases, as well as civic, religious, and philosophical matters. The Athenian pagans believed that Zeus' son, Ares, was tried for the murder of Poseidon's son, Halirrhothius, at this site, so they named it after him. The Greek philosopher Socrates (470–399 BC) preached at the Areopagus, and the court there would later execute him for promoting destructive ideas. Nonetheless, Ares' Hill was a perfect symbol of the Axial Age, setting the stage for Paul's trial before the Athenians ( Acts 17:16–34 )—nearly every trend of the Great Transformation passed through it. So, when Paul came to Athens in late AD 50, Christianity got its day in court. When Paul visited Athens, he preached about Jesus' resurrection in Jewish synagogues and pagan marketplaces. He was grieved by the city's idols, especially the altar dedicated "to an unknown god." Some Epicurean and Stoic philosophers debated with Paul, taking him before the Areopagus for trial. This same court had tried and killed Socrates about 450 years before, so make no mistake: Paul was facing the death penalty. The Epicureans and the Stoics that day called him a "babbler" ( spermologos ; G4691 ), a fitting insult since God was using Paul to clarify Axial Age truths, reversing the confusion of Babel when the nations were divided into various languages ( Gen. 11:1–9 ). The Greek noun spermologos means "word-seeder," referring to how a bird picks up random seeds. A "babbler" was a person who heard various scraps of knowledge and spread them to others without understanding their meaning. Given how nearly every wind of Axial Age transformation swept through Athens, ignorant babblers looking for quick money were very common there. ​ Paul quoted the Greek poets Epimenides of Knossos (fl. sixth century BC), Aratus of Soli (c. 315–c. 245 BC), and Cleanthes of Assos (c. 330–c. 232 BC) when he testified, "In God, we live, move, and exist. As some of your own poets [i.e., Aratus and Cleanthes] said, 'We are his offspring'" ( Acts 17:28 ). In his poem Cretica , Epimenides lamented, "They fashioned a tomb for you, holy and high one, Cretans; always liars, evil beasts, idle bellies. But you are not dead: You live and abide forever, for in you we live and move and have our being." Paul also quoted from Cretica when we warned Titus: "Cretans are always liars, evil brutes, lazy gluttons" ( Titus 1:12 ). In Phenomena , Aratus declared: All the streets and marketplaces of humanity are full of Zeus. The sea and the harbors are also full of him, and everywhere, we all need Zeus, for we are also his offspring (2–5). Likewise, Cleanthes wrote: The beginning of the world was from you, and with law, you rule over all things. To you, all flesh may speak, for we are your offspring. Therefore, I will lift you a hymn and sing of your power ( Hymn to Zeus , frag. 537). However, this was not an exercise in religious pluralism or comparative religion. Paul was taking the tidbits of truth from their literature but redirecting them to the one true God. However, it was not monotheism that offended the Athenians, but Paul's mention of resurrection ( Acts 17:32 ). Greeks did not believe in the soul's immortality, which is the essence of the Christian gospel. Paul alluded to the centuries before the Axial Age when he explained: Therefore, since we are God's offspring, we should not think that the divine being is like gold or silver or stone—an image made by human design and skill. In the past God overlooked such ignorance, but now he commands all people everywhere to repent. For he has set a day when he will judge the world with justice by the man he has appointed [i.e., Jesus]. He has given proof of this to everyone by raising him from the dead ( Acts 17:29–31 ). Paul affirmed God's transcendence and immanence, alluding to the respective Epicurean and Stoic notions of divinity. He showed the Athenians they had some things right about God, but needed more details to know him as objective truth with a subjective faith. God is the King of the universe and the Lord of our personal lives. This saving knowledge of Jesus makes the resurrection possible for all of us. Briana Tozour Conclusion The concept of the Axial Age remains a topic of debate among historians and scholars of religion. Karl Jaspers believed that between 500 and 300 BC, important religious and philosophical ideas developed in different parts of the world, including China, India, Persia, Israel, and Greece. However, the exact period and its definition are not entirely clear. Even so, the Axial Age theory helps us understand how major thinkers, including Confucius, Lao Tzu, the Buddha, Zoroaster, and the Hebrew prophets, shaped religion, philosophy, and ethics in ways that still influence us today. Studying the Axial Age provides a unique perspective on how human ideas and beliefs have evolved and connected across history. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you have made of one blood all the peoples of the earth, and sent your blessed Son to teach peace to those who are far off and to those who are near: Grant that people everywhere may seek after you and find you; bring the nations into your fold; pour out your Holy Spirit upon all flesh; and hasten the coming of your kingdom; through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Armstrong, Karen. The Great Transformation: The Beginning of Our Religious Traditions . New York: Anchor, 2007.​​ Baggett, David. "Paul and Socrates: What Athens Has to Do with Jerusalem." Moral Apologetics (blog). Houston Christian University. September 30, 2015. link . ​ Baumard, Nicolas, Alexandre Hyafil, and Pascal Boyer. "What Changed During the Axial Age: Cognitive Styles or Reward Systems?" Communicative and Integrative Biology 8, no. 5 (2015). link . ​ Bellah, Robert N. Religion in Human Evolution: From the Paleolithic to the Axial Age . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011. ​ Bellah, Robert N., and Hans Joas, eds. The Axial Age and Its Consequences . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012. ​ Blackburn, Simon. Ethics: A Very Short Introduction . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2001. ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Gundry, Robert H. A Survey of the New Testament . 5th ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Jaspers, Karl. The Origin and Goal of History . Routledge Classics. Translated by Michael Bullock. New York: Routledge, 2021. Khoo, Kay Keng. "The Tao and the Logos: Lao Tzu and the Gospel of John." International Review of Mission 87, no. 344 (1998): 77–84. link . Mayer, John D. "The Significance of the Axial Age (The Great Transformation)." Psychology Today. May 25, 2009. link . ​ Moreland, J. P. Love Your God with All Your Mind: The Role of Reason in the Life of the Soul . Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2012. ​ Muesse, Mark W. Age of the Sages: The Axial Age in Asia and the Near East . Minneapolis: Fortress, 2013. ​ ⸻. Religions of the Axial Age: An Approach to the World's Religions . The Great Courses. Chantilly, VA: Teaching Company, 2013.​ Oppy, Graham, K. Scott Oliphint, Timothy McGrew, and Paul Moser. Four Views on Christianity and Philosophy . Counterpoints. Edited by Paul M. Gould, Richard Davis, and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ Powell, Mark Allan. Introducing the New Testament: A Historical, Literary, and Theological Survey . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018.​ Schlechter, Solomon, and Wilhelm Bacher. "Hillel." Jewish Encyclopedia . Philadelphia: Kopelman, 2021. link . Stefon, Matt. "Axial Age: 5 Fast Facts." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, 2010–present. link . ​ Wright, N. T. Paul: A Biography . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2018. ⸻. The Resurrection of the Son of God . Vol. 3 of Christian Origins and the Question of God. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003. ​ Zai, J. Taoism and Science: Cosmology, Evolution, Morality, Health, and More . Brisbane, Australia: Ultravisum, 2015.

Milada Vigerova Introduction The netherworld is a physical place, but not the one most people think of. The "hell" that Jesus alluded to was the Hinnom Valley near Jerusalem. Its Hebrew name is Ge-Hinnom ( H2011 ), while the Greek one is Geenna ( G1067 )—which scholars anglicize as "Gehenna." Out of the numerous Bible versions, only the Complete Jewish Bible (CJB) and Young's Literal Translation (YLT)​ accurately interpret "Gehenna" ( see  here  and here ). However, if biblical interpreters were to translate Geena instead of either paraphrasing or transliterating it, our scriptures would read "Hinnom" instead of "hell" or "Gehenna." The Ge- prefix means "valley" ( H1516 ). Look at the Bible with first-century eyes and imagine Jesus telling us, "Do not be afraid of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the One who can destroy both soul and body in [Hinnom]" ( Matt. 10:28 ). Not quite as scary, right? Consider why Jesus alluded to the Hinnom Valley as a symbol of God's final judgment. Sometimes, even geographical locations have a reputation for being evil. Consider our foreboding thoughts about places such as Auschwitz, the Bermuda Triangle, or even the local cemetery in our time. In the minds of first-century Jews, the Hinnom Valley stood for all of these: cruelty, disappearances, holocausts, mass graves, and sadism. Mikhail Semenov Hinnom: Burning & Sacrifice ​ There are eleven Old Testament references to the "Valley of Ben Hinnom" ( see here ). This site was initially allocated to the tribe of Judah when the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land. They seized the territory from the Jebusites with the intent of establishing the Hebrew faith in a region of pagan idolatry ( Exod. 3 , 23:23 , 33:2 , 34:11 ; Deut. 7:1 , 20:17 ; Josh. 3:10 ). However, the author of Joshua explicitly wrote, "Judah could not dislodge the Jebusites, who were living in Jerusalem; to this day the Jebusites live there with the people of Judah" ( Josh. 15:63 ). In their failure, the Israelites not only lived among the pagans that God intended for them to conquer but also started worshiping their idols and intermarried with them ( Ezra 9:1–2 ). While many commentators read the Joshua text as a story of genocide, the actual history is not so simple. The main reason that God told the Israelites to occupy the Promised Land was to stop the abhorrent practices of nations such as the Jebusites. Their main evil was child sacrifice, usually in the Hinnom Valley. During his sweeping reforms, King Josiah destroyed the altars on Topheth, where the priests would burn children alive in dedication to the idol Molek ( 2 Kgs. 23:1–20 ). The prophet Jeremiah lamented this horrible atrocity ( Jer. 7:31–32 ) and even recorded God's anger: ​ So beware, the days are coming, declares the L ORD , when people will no longer call this place Topheth or the Valley of Ben Hinnom, but the Valley of Slaughter ( Jer. 19:6 ). . . . They built high places for Baal in the Valley of Ben Hinnom to sacrifice their sons and daughters to Molek, though I never commanded—nor did it enter my mind—that they should do such a detestable thing and so make Judah sin ( Jer. 32:35 ). Svarshik Gehenna: Beyond the Grave ​ If Jesus' warnings to the Pharisees were about the Hinnom Valley, they would have little meaning to us today. When reading Scripture, it can be challenging to distinguish between what remains relevant to us and what is rooted in its original context. In the narrative force of Jesus' lesson, he accused the Judean religious leaders of idolatry, both in a spiritual and political context. The Pharisees turned their backs on God by rejecting the Messiah and trusting in their self-righteousness and Roman privilege. The primary image of the Hinnom Valley that Jesus applied was that of a graveyard, as it was commonly used in the first century. In ancient times, Hinnom was a mass grave for child sacrifice. However, the Jewish people designated the area as a cemetery after the exile due to its association with death. Hakeldama ( G184 ), also known as the "Field of Blood," where Judas Iscariot is said to have died, was located in the Hinnom Valley . Luke used this theme to symbolize Judas' condemnation, as Peter said, "Judas left to go where he belongs" ( Acts 1:25 ). According to the Law of Moses, the Pharisees took special precautions in keeping themselves ritually clean ( Matt. 23:25–26 ; Mark 7:1–5 ). Part of this Law was to avoid touching a corpse and walking in graveyards ( Num. 19:11–13 ; Luke 11:44 ). When Jesus accused them of being "whitewashed tombs" that looked pretty on the outside but contained death on the inside ( Matt. 23:27 ), he was telling them that God views their sins as equally heinous as the Hinnom Valley's history. The symbolism behind the undying worms and the unquenchable fire ( Mark 9:48 ; cf. Isa. 66:24 ) refers to both the worms that feed on decaying bodies in the grave and the use of flame to accelerate the decay process. Spiritual death implies an experience of neglect and immolation without relief. ​ Diego Sánchez Netherworld: Sheol, Hades & Tartarus ​ Sheol ( H7585 ) was a term for the netherworld in the Hebrew scriptures. However, contemporary interpreters often leave Sheol untranslated because it was an actual region in Hebrew cosmology, not just a metaphor. Older translations use "grave" to translate Sheol , but this word describes a realm of the dead, not just a plot where one's body decays. The Septuagint writers understood the Greek idea of Hades as a fair equivalent of Sheol , so they applied it. The parallel between Sheol and Hades continues in the New Testament with the concept of the netherworld. However, this region was not "hell" in the sense of eternal punishment but a place where each soul became a "shadow" of its former self. The Greeks also described Tartarus , where the Titans were thrown into eternal dungeons to be tormented. This realm was reserved for the most evil of gods and human beings. Tartarus appears in the Septuagint translation of Job and the extra-biblical and non-canonical book of Enoch. In the New Testament, it is recorded only once as the passive verb tartaroō ( G5020 , "send into Tartarus"). When Peter wrote, "For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but sent them to hell [Greek: tartarōsas ], putting them in chains of darkness to be held for judgment" ( 2 Pet. 2:4 ), he had the condemnation of the watchers in the book of Enoch in mind ( §§ 1 , 2 ). This theme coincides with Jesus' harshest words on hellfire: ​ Then he will say to those on his left, "Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels. For I was hungry and you gave me nothing to eat, I was thirsty and you gave me nothing to drink, I was a stranger and you did not invite me in, I needed clothes and you did not clothe me, I was sick and in prison and you did not look after me" ( Matt. 25:41–43 ). ​ First-century Jews did not have a systematic view of heaven and hellfire as we Christians do today. Instead of yearning for "heaven," they looked forward to living in "Abraham's bosom." In the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, Jesus contrasted the destinations of the righteous and the evildoers. In his teaching, Jesus did not say much about "Abraham's bosom" other than that it has a boundary that keeps the people from the netherworld out. Interestingly, the rich man asks for mere water, meaning not even basic necessities are fulfilled in "this place of torment" ( Luke 16:19–31 ). Stacey Franco Conclusion ​ In our Western culture, we generally overspiritualize the concepts of hellfire and final punishment. We typically overlook the physical geography of Gehenna in the here and now, too readily ignoring the grave that awaits us all. In many church circles, people say, "Hell is eternal separation from God." The scriptures never teach this idea, but the exact opposite. For example, King David lamented, "If I go up to the heavens, you are there; if I make my bed in the depths, you are there. . . . If I say, 'Surely the darkness will hide me and the light become night around me, even the darkness will not be dark to you; the night will shine like the day, for darkness is as light to you'" ( Ps. 139:8 , 11–12 ). You read that correctly—God is still present in the darkness of Sheol . Even older versions mention "hell" at Psalm 139:8 (e.g., KJV). The apostle John wrote in Revelation: [They], too, will drink the wine of God's fury, which has been poured full strength into the cup of his wrath. They will be tormented with burning sulfur in the presence of the holy angels and of the Lamb. And the smoke of their torment will rise for ever and ever. There will be no rest day or night for those who worship the beast and its image, or for anyone who receives the mark of its name ( Rev. 14:10–11 ). In other words, God's presence torments the wicked and the unrighteous, not eternal separation from him. We should not view this "Gehenna of fire" as coming from an angry God who delights in sending people to the netherworld for eternity, but as prideful evildoers who have always rejected him. If specific individuals hate God in the present, then why would they be happy with him in the future, for eternity? As Jesus himself warned us, "Truly I tell you, they have received their reward in full" ( Matt. 6:2 ). Nevertheless, the apostle Paul said, "[They] received in themselves the due penalty for their error" ( Rom. 1:27 ). ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; we thank you for this night when Jesus broke the bonds of death and Hades and arose victorious from the grave. How incredible and beyond our knowing is your mercy and steadfast love for us; to redeem a slave, you gave a Son. Christ's death obliterated the providence of Adam's sin. How holy is this night when evil is put to flight and corruption is washed away. It restores innocence to the fallen and joy to those who mourn. It casts out pride and hatred, bringing peace and comfort. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. ​ Barker, Margaret. The Lost Prophet: The Book of Enoch and Its Influence on Christianity . Revised ed. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2005. ​ ⸻. The Older Testament: The Survival of Themes from the Ancient Royal Cult in Sectarian Judaism and Early Christianity . Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2005. ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Burk, Denny, John G. Stackhouse Jr., Robin A. Parry, and Jerry L. Walls. Four Views on Hell . Counterpoints. 2nd ed. Edited by Preston Sprinkle and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ Charles, Robert H. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in English . Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1913. ​ Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ Papaioannou, Kim. The Geography of Hell in the Teaching of Jesus: Gehenna, Hades, the Abyss, the Outer Darkness Where There is Weeping and Gnashing of Teeth . Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2013. ​ Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020. ​ Van Scott, Miriam. The Encyclopedia of Hell: A Comprehensive Survey of the Underworld . New York: Thomas Dunne, 1998.

Jeff Jacobs Introduction The label of "false teacher" is not something to take lightly. We are guilty of slander and bearing false witness if we judge a church leader without solid scriptural evidence. Then, we teach the falsehood ourselves when we try to get others on our side. A "false teacher" is a specific kind of person in Christendom, not just a church leader who makes honest mistakes when they teach. There is a significant distinction between ignorance and negligence in terms of patterns of error. The false teacher is always one with Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), which psychologists say most often goes undiagnosed and untreated. This reality is because the narcissist first has to admit they have a problem and then be willing to be counseled and held accountable for their behavior. The false teacher and the narcissist have a grandiose self-image, a deliberate plan to exploit others for gain, and the creative ability to mislead people into sin by twisting the facts. Believers must approach discernment with humility and caution, understanding the gravity of labeling someone a "false teacher." While specific individuals intentionally manipulate and deceive, we must differentiate between genuine mistakes, ignorance, and deliberate deception. Accusations of false teaching should be based on solid scriptural evidence and approached with a spirit of restoration rather than condemnation. Additionally, while some false teachers may exhibit traits consistent with narcissism, not all who make errors in teaching or leadership necessarily fit this diagnosis. As we navigate the complexities of discernment within the church, we must prioritize love, grace, and a commitment to truth, seeking wisdom and guidance from God's Word and the Holy Spirit. Paleo-Christian Press False Teachers: A Warning ​ Jesus admonishes us, "Watch out for false prophets. They come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ferocious wolves" ( Matt. 7:15 ). That said, we must carefully discern true teachers that God appoints for the church from the false ones who intend to mislead it. The scriptures do not leave us uninformed about the nature of a false teacher. In his second letter, the apostle Peter warned us about false teachers and described their narcissism in excruciating detail, along with the punishments God will give them. The tell-tale characteristics of NPD (discussed in the next section, "Narcissism: A Warning") are mentioned in the passage: ​ But there were also false prophets among the people, just as there will be false teachers among you. They will secretly introduce destructive heresies, even denying the sovereign Lord who bought them—bringing swift destruction on themselves. Many will follow their depraved conduct and will bring the way of truth into disrepute. In their greed, these teachers will exploit you with fabricated stories. Their condemnation has long been hanging over them, and their destruction has not been sleeping. . . . This is especially true of those who follow the corrupt desire of the flesh and despise authority. Bold and arrogant, they are not afraid to heap abuse on celestial beings; yet even angels, although they are stronger and more powerful, do not heap abuse on such beings when bringing judgment on them from the Lord. But these people blaspheme in matters they do not understand. They are like unreasoning animals, creatures of instinct, born only to be caught and destroyed, and like animals, they too will perish. They will be paid back with harm for the harm they have done. Their idea of pleasure is to carouse in broad daylight. They are blots and blemishes, reveling in their pleasures while they feast with you. With eyes full of adultery, they never stop sinning; they seduce the unstable; they are experts in greed—an accursed brood! They have left the straight way and wandered off to follow the way of Balaam son of Bezer, who loved the wages of wickedness. But he was rebuked for his wrongdoing by a donkey—an animal without speech—who spoke with a human voice and restrained the prophet's madness. These people are springs without water and mists driven by a storm. Blackest darkness is reserved for them. For they mouth empty, boastful words and, by appealing to the lustful desires of the flesh, they entice people who are just escaping from those who live in error ( 2 Pet. 2:1–3 , 10–18 ). ​ The Lord also warns us, "I am sending you out like sheep among wolves. Therefore be as shrewd as snakes and as innocent as doves" ( Matt. 10:16 ). We are like sheep because Jesus is the Good Shepherd who leads us to greener pastures but also takes care of us on the way to them ( John 10:11–18 ). Not all evildoers are atheists or criminals who overtly deny God. Instead, many join our churches to escalate conflict and divide us with their religious or political agendas. All these false teachers look for ways to harm and abuse churchgoers, whether through finances, sex, emotions, or the physical body. American philosopher Vernon Howard's (1918–1992) quote typifies their mindset: "A powerful person does not need the approval of others any more than a lion needs the approval of sheep." Yes, it is very much deliberate. For this reason, Jesus instructs us to know and apply the truth without succumbing to the same deceitful tactics as the false teachers. Paleo-Christian Press Narcissism: A Warning ​ The word "narcissism" derives from the ancient Greek myth of Narcissus (pictured above). He frequently gazed at the reflection of his face in the water, admiring himself obsessively. Coincidentally, King Solomon wrote, "As water reflects the face, so one's life reflects the heart" ( Prov. 27:19 ). As Christians, we should generally avoid references to pagan myths and concepts; however, it is appropriate in this context because narcissism is often characterized as dark, evil, and godless. NPD is not something that a person "suffers from," and therapy alone will not correct it. The narcissist must reach a breaking point when they face the consequences of their wrongdoing so they may begin the process of repentance. They are not suffering from paranoia or being "out of mind," as with other mental disorders. The narcissist must undergo a "change of mind," the literal meaning of the Greek word metanoia ( G3341 ), translated as "repentance." Godly sorrow occurs when people realize they need God, admit they have sinned, take responsibility for their actions, and seek accountability to prevent it from happening again. The apostle Paul agreed: "Godly sorrow brings repentance that leads to salvation and leaves no regret, but worldly sorrow brings death" ( 2 Cor. 7:10 ). Both false teachers and narcissists refuse to do any of these things. Here is a quote written by a man about himself that perfectly exemplifies both the characteristics of a false teacher and a narcissist: Not Your Typical Pastor . Pastor Kevin [M. Young] is unique. You'll be hard-pressed to find another minister like him, anywhere. He marches to the beat of his own drum and, above all else, desires to walk in lockstep with Jesus . . . no matter what anyone else thinks. You'll not find a person more committed to integrity or teaching the Bible in ways that compel you to want to be a part. You'll find him to be passionate, creative, insightful, and above all else . . . quirky. He is a father to 4, husband to 1, and avid lifter of heavy things. And while his teaching is uber accessible, he is an Early Church and Future Church scholar, hoping to bring the two together for the good of today ( see here ). He follows up with a request for money, expecting to receive between $25 and $25,000 per donation for his self-governed online "church," which has more than 500 followers. Spiritual narcissists invoke God, Scripture, and doctrine to manipulate people. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , 5th edition (DSM-5), the typical narcissist has exaggerated senses of self-importance and entitlement. They: Hypocritically expect morality from others but make excuses for themselves. Intentionally provoke others to justified anger, and then accuse them of abuse. Constantly seek out great admiration and "fish" for compliments. Demand recognition for basic tasks and volunteering. Exaggerate their achievements and talents. Preoccupy themselves with dreams of success, power, beauty, or an ideal "soulmate." They have an inflated sense of worth; they can only be with other "elite" people. Dominate conversations and degrade individuals they consider inferior. Expect special favors and unwavering compliance with their expectations. Solicit frequent apologies and dismiss one's intentions while emphasizing their own. Take advantage of people to get what they want, no matter the cost. The inability or refusal to empathize with others' needs and feelings. Envy others and believe that others envy them. Behave arrogantly or haughtily, appearing arrogant, boastful, and pretentious. Demand the best of everything (e.g., house, car, clothes, or office). They are deeply offended by the slightest hint of personal criticism. Routinely in conflict in close relationships (e.g., family, friends, and romantic partners). Burn bridges or be estranged from their family members. Have a complex history of broken relationships. Often use contact information to "hoover." React with rage, contempt, or impatience when they do not get special treatment. They are impulsive with their emotions and behavior. Cannot deal with stress or adapt to change very well. They feel depressed and experience mood swings when they fail to meet their goals. Have deeply personal feelings of insecurity, shame, vulnerability, and humiliation. Only see the value of something by its ability to manipulate or exploit people. Paleo-Christian Press Conclusion Identifying false teachers in the church is an essential skill that requires wisdom and care. We must compare their teaching to the Bible and approach the situation humbly. While it is necessary to recognize when someone is spreading wrong ideas, we should try to correct and restore them before establishing firmer boundaries. Some false teachers may act selfishly or pridefully, but we should not assume things about them without proof. Our main goal should be to protect the truth of the Christian faith while showing love and kindness. By studying God's Word and listening to the Holy Spirit, we can handle these situations with wisdom and compassion. Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; deliver us from all false doctrine and heresy, from the hardness of heart and contempt of your Word and commandments. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Caligor, Eve, Kenneth N. Levy, and Frank E. Yeomans. "Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Diagnostic and Clinical Challenges." American Journal of Psychiatry 172, no. 5 (2015): 415–22. link . ​ Kacel, Elizabeth L., Nicole Ennis, and Deidre B. Pereira. "Narcissistic Personality Disorder in Clinical Health Psychology Practice: Case Studies of Comorbid Psychological Distress and Life-Limiting Illness." Behavioral Medicine 43, no. 3 (2017): 156–64.​ link . Megji, Shaneen. "Can God Speak Through a Narcissist? How to Tell and How to Safeguard Yourself Against Deception." Shaneen Megji (blog). April 13, 2024. link . Perina, Kaja, ed. "Conditions: Narcissistic Personality Disorder." Psychology Today. January 6, 2022. link . Pruthi, Sandhya, ed. "Diseases and Conditions: Narcissistic Personality Disorder." Mayo Clinic. April 6, 2023. link . Reece, Kris. "The Demonic Spirits Driving Narcissists." Kris Reece (blog). March 23, 2023. link . ⸻. "Does God Expect Christians to Stay with Narcissists?" April 12, 2022. link . Stauffer, Claude. "Nasty Narcissism In the Last Days—What Does the Bible Say About Narcissism?" Shepherd of Hope. January 4, 2024. link .

Malek Bee Introduction What indeed has Auschwitz to do with Jerusalem?—or with Cambridge, Chicago, Collegeville, Downers Grove, Grand Rapids, London, Minneapolis, Nashville, New York, Oxford, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Wheaton, or any other city that hosts a prominent Christian or Jewish publisher? I loosely base this question on a more ancient one by Tertullian of Carthage (c. AD 155–c. 220): "What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" ( Prescription Against Heretics 7 ). Auschwitz is not the German name for the Polish town of Oświęcim, which dates back to the twelfth century and currently has a population of approximately 40,000. Yet, we only recall five short years (1940–1945) of its more than 700. The reason is that an estimated 1.5 million people died in the Auschwitz-Birkenau (Polish: Oświęcim-Brzezinka ) concentration camp during this time—90% of them were Jews. It had about 35 times the number of residents there today. Therefore, Auschwitz is a symbol of the Holocaust (Hebrew: Shoah ; H7724b ; "Destruction"), or what Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) and his National Socialists (Nazis) termed the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" (German: Endlösung der Judenfrage ). ​ Jerusalem was the undisputed center of early Christianity and was always the most sacred place in Judaism. The disciples of Jesus evangelized most of the Mediterranean world, launching from the Jewish Christian church of Jerusalem. Most importantly, the city symbolizes where God meets us in our physical world, both in the ancient temple and in the person of Jesus. If Jerusalem proves God's faithfulness to all humankind, it follows that Auschwitz represents our most faithless rebellion against him. It is one thing for elitist Judean priests and imperialistic Roman pagans to crucify Jesus, but it is another for supposed "Christians" to destroy God's image in mass murder. Nevertheless, this article is about the good from our deep soul-searching that followed World War II. Axel Smid Antisemitism in the Early Church The picture at the beginning of this section features a bas-relief of soldiers carrying the temple's equipment and furniture through the streets of Rome. The most notable is the menorah ( H4501 ), the seven-branched lampstand. This bas-relief is part of the Arch of Titus, which the emperor Domitian (r. AD 81–96) built to honor Titus' (r. AD 79–81) siege of Jerusalem in AD 70, including the destruction of the Temple. However, this was not an antisemitic hate crime but an act of war. The persecution of Jews at Roman hands should have ended as the empire grew increasingly Christian, especially with Constantine's (r. AD 306–337) edict that legalized Christianity in AD 313. Sadly, it did not. The early church leaders between the second and fifth centuries warned against the dangers of Judaizing , which requires Gentiles to follow the Law of Moses. Albeit a legitimate concern that Paul of Tarsus addressed in his letter to the Galatians ( Gal. 2:15–21 ), the early church fathers, however, graduated from objecting to the Jewish religion to outright hatred for the Jews as an ethnicity. For example, the Greco-Judean apologist Justin Martyr (c. AD 100–c. 165) made religious objections in his Dialogue with Trypho : For the circumcision according to the flesh, which is from Abraham, was given for a sign; that you may be separated from other nations, and from us; and that you alone may suffer that which you now justly suffer; and that your land may be desolate, and your cities burned with fire; and that strangers may eat your fruit in your presence, and not one of you may go up to Jerusalem ( Dialogue with Trypho 16 ). ​ When the Council of Nicaea resolved the Quartodeciman controversy in AD 325, the Roman emperor Constantine wrote this to the members: It was, in the first place, declared improper to follow the custom of the Jews in the celebration of this holy festival because—their hands having been stained with crime—the minds of these wretched men are necessarily blinded. By rejecting their custom, we establish and hand down to succeeding ages one which is more reasonable and which has been observed ever since the day of our Lord's sufferings. Let us, then, have nothing in common with the Jews, who are our adversaries. We have received this from our Savior in another way (Theodoret , Ecclesiastical History 1.9 ). Later in the fourth century, the Greek archbishop John Chrysostom (AD 354–407) published a series of eight homilies titled Against the Jews (Greek: Kata Ioudaiōn ; G2596 , G2453 ). This work was just one of three writings in a patristic genre called Adversus Judaeos , the Latin translation for "Against the Jews." Chrusostomos , a nickname given to John meaning "golden mouth" ( G5552 , G4750 ), preached these choice words: Jews are dogs, stiff-necked, gluttonous drunkards. They are beasts unfit for work . . . the Jews had fallen into a condition lower than the vilest animals . . . the synagogue is worse than a brothel and a drinking shop; it is a den of scoundrels, a temple of demons, the cavern of devils, an unlawful assembly of the assassins of Christ. . . . I hate the Jews because they violate the law . . . it is the duty of all Christians to hate the Jews ( Against the Jews , Hom. 1 ). Edelseider Antisemitism in the Medieval Church ​ The antisemitism of early church leaders from the second to the fourth centuries (i.e., the ante-Nicene period) heavily influenced their successors well into the sixteenth century and beyond, continuing into the twentieth century. Even today, we refer to men such as Justin Martyr and John Chrysostom as "early church fathers" and label their theological writings as "patristic," i.e., fatherly. While this tradition honors the ante-Nicene clergy and theologians for their works on Jesus' identity, the definition of the Trinity, and the canonization of the New Testament, their antisemitism cannot be ignored. While these men did well to defend the apostolic teaching of the first century into later generations, they developed a heretical doctrine known as replacement theology, also referred to as supersessionism . Both descriptions refer to the mistaken belief that the Christian church replaces or supersedes the Jewish people as God's chosen. In a medieval sub-genre of Christian art known as Ecclesia et Synagoga , Latin for "Church and Synagogue," two women represent the supersession of Christianity over Judaism. Ecclesia wears a crown and holds a processional cross with a chalice, alluding to the church's ordained leadership under the new covenant. At the same time, a blindfolded Synagoga clutches a broken lance, symbolizing the Jews as "Christ-killers" (ironically, it was a Roman soldier who pierced Jesus with a spear; John 19:34 ). In his letter to the Roman church, Paul addressed this erroneous view among the Christian Gentiles even in his own time ( Rom. 11 ). However, rather than heeding Paul's warning, many early church leaders formed toxic relationships with the Jews. ​ However, the antisemitism of the medieval church was not limited to theological concepts. During the First Crusade (1095–1096), over five thousand Jews were murdered. Around 1120, this prompted the Roman bishop Calixtus II (c. 1065–1124) to issue a charter known as  "Sicut Judaeis" (i.e., "Thus to the Jews"), which forbade Christians from harming Jews and their property. Nonetheless, this document could not protect the Jews from the Christians for long. In the early Middle Ages, most European nations kept their citizens from charging interest based on a scriptural ban in Deuteronomy ( Deut. 23:19–20 ). Ironically, this command was for the Israelites not to demand interest from other Israelites but only from Gentiles. Therefore, the Jews found that their money lending and collection of interest did not contradict their scriptures. What began as an economic restriction would ironically become one of the most widespread stereotypes of Jews as greedy for money. The following two mentions of​ antisemitism in the medieval church are ones that influenced the hate crimes of Nazi Germany on Kristallnacht —the "crystal night" when SA ( Sturmabteilung , i.e., "Storm Detachment") paramilitants destroyed Jewish shops and shipped 30,000 Jews to concentration camps from November 9–10, 1938. Centuries before, the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 established canons 68 and 69 , which forced Jews to wear distinctive clothing from the Christian population and banned them from holding public office. These decrees very quickly escalated antisemitic policies throughout Europe, with Jews eventually having to wear a unique yellow or white badge of Jewish identity on their clothes. This council, of which the warlike Roman bishop Innocent III (c. 1160–1216) presided, caused so much antisemitic fear among Europeans that claims of ritualistic child murder (i.e., "blood libel") against Jews were commonplace. They also blamed their Jewish neighbors for desecrating communion wafers believed to be Christ's transubstantiated body—a perceived crime against divinity. However, all of these accusations were baseless. About 300 years later, the Christian church had an excellent opportunity to change its position on Judaism when it sought to reform many other false doctrines taught by Roman Catholic leaders for centuries. Men such as the German pastor Martin Luther (1483–1546) began the Protestant Reformation (1517–1648) at the Castle Church in Wittenberg to oppose the heresies of Vatican dogma. At first, he welcomed the Jews into his new church family. However, when Luther saw that they did not want to convert to Christianity under new leadership, he despised them. Luther was nine years old when Spanish monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon (r. 1479–1516) and Isabella I of Castile (r. 1474–1504)—the same ones who dispatched Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) to the Americas in 1492—began to expel the Jews from Spain that same year during the Inquisition (1478–1834). The "Lutheran" church would dominate Germany, inheriting much of Luther's antisemitism. In 1543, he published On Jews and Their Lies (German: Von den Juden und ihren Lügen ). Here is one excerpt to illustrate Luther's view of the Jewish people: ​ And so, dear Christian, beware of the Jews . . . you can see how God's wrath has consigned them to the devil, who has robbed them not only of a proper understanding of the scriptures, but also of common human reason, modesty, and sense. . . . Thus, when you see a genuine Jew you may come with a good conscience cross yourself, and boldly say, "There goes the devil incarnate." Hannan Aslan From Wittenberg to Nuremberg ​ The connection between Luther and Kristallnacht is neither a literary device nor sensational rhetoric for the sake of this article. In parts 11–13 of On Jews and Their Lies , he wrote some chilling advice to German believers, foreshadowing Kristallnacht and almost every detail of the Holocaust to a T. In closing this section, consider this 1946 testimony by Nazi politician Julius Streicher (1885–1946)—who founded the newspaper Der Stürmer (i.e., "The Stormer")—at his Nuremberg trial for genocide: ​ I did not intend to agitate or inflame but to enlighten. Antisemitic publications have existed in Germany for centuries. . . . In the book On the Jews and Their Lies , Dr. Martin Luther writes that the Jews are a serpent's brood and one should burn down their synagogues and destroy them. Dr. Martin Luther would probably sit in my place in the defendants' dock today if his book had been considered by the prosecution [i.e., the International Military Tribunal]. Melissa Kelly / Saint Joseph's University Reconciliation After Auschwitz ​ World War II and the Holocaust could have widened the rift between Jews and Christians well into the twentieth century. However, beauty arose from the ashes. This idea is not to downplay the horrors of Auschwitz and the millennia of antisemitism that led to it. God, as he is inclined to do, took what the Nazis intended for evil and turned it into good to preserve a great nation: Israel ( Gen. 50:20 ). In 1948—three years after the Allies defeated Nazi Germany—the Jewish people transitioned from living in fear to establish a newly independent State of Israel boldly. "Holocaust guilt" inspired all Western civilization to support this country, whether culturally, financially, militarily, politically, or religiously. ​ "Holocaust guilt" also changed the course of biblical studies among Western universities. Before World War II, most research on the Bible and its context reflected a supersessionist bias. For example, Jesus was given Gentile labels as "cynic" or "philosopher." This problem was not unlike medieval Christian art, which consistently portrayed Jesus as a European king with a pale complexion. After World War II, biblical scholars recognized that Jewish sources provided additional context for the Old and New Testaments. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls starting in 1946—just one year after the war ended—suddenly presented a Jewish setting of the gospels that scholars once considered Hellenistic. Likewise, theologians explored the "Jewishness of Jesus" and offered a "new perspective on Paul," redefining both men as discerning leaders of their communities rather than outside critics. The most surprising phenomenon is the rise of Messianic Judaism by Torah-observant Jews who acknowledge Jesus as their Messiah. In the latter half of the twentieth century, Christians began to realize how Jewish commentaries, such as the Talmud, could shed light on obscure verses and resolve apparent contradictions. They also understood how the Jewish feasts corresponded with Jesus' life and teachings ( see " Calendar of the Church "). ​ In the fall of 2015, Saint Joseph's University in Philadelphia unveiled a new statue called "Ecclesia and Synagoga in Our Time" (pictured above). Francis (b. 1936), the Catholic bishop of Rome, and the Orthodox Jewish rabbi Abraham Skorka (b. 1950), a professor at Saint Joseph's University who worked with its Institute for Jewish–Catholic Relations from 2018 to 2020, attended the event. Unlike the medieval art tradition, both women have crowns and sit beside each other. They learn together, sharing the scrolls of Judaism alongside the bound scriptures of Christianity. Today, we are seeing a reversal of what biblical scholars call the "parting of ways," or the time when the early church made a clean break from its Jewish forebears ( see " Jew & Gentile: Parting Ways "). Theologians and parishioners employ the historical-grammatical method to examine the historical context of first-century Judea and the authors' intended meaning. Christians are discovering the Mishnah while Jews reflect on the four gospels. This phenomenon is to fulfill what God told us through the prophet Zechariah: ​ In those days, ten people from all languages and nations will take firm hold of one Jew by the hem of his robe and say, "Let us go with you, because we have heard that God is with you" ( Zech. 8:23 ). Levi Meir Clancy Conclusion The juxtaposition of Auschwitz and Jerusalem serves as a poignant reminder of the extremes of human experience and the complexities of faith. Auschwitz, with its harrowing history as a site of unimaginable suffering and genocide during the Holocaust, stands as a stark symbol of humanity's capacity for cruelty and moral failure. In contrast, Jerusalem, steeped in religious significance for Jews and Christians, represents the hope for divine redemption and the possibility of reconciliation and renewal. The question, "What has Auschwitz to do with Jerusalem?," challenges us to confront the darkest aspects of human nature while also seeking meaning and redemption in the face of tragedy. While Auschwitz may represent humanity's most faithless rebellion against God, Jerusalem symbolizes the promise of divine grace and the potential for spiritual awakening and healing. Through deep soul-searching and reflection, we can glean valuable lessons from the atrocities of Auschwitz and the enduring faith of Jerusalem. By acknowledging the depths of human depravity and the heights of divine love and mercy, we are compelled to strive for a world where such atrocities can never happen again and where the values of compassion, justice, and reconciliation prevail. In this way, we honor the memory of those who perished in Auschwitz and affirm the enduring significance of Jerusalem as a symbol of hope and redemption for all humanity. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you created us in your image: Grant us grace to contend fearlessly against evil and to make no peace with oppression, and help us to use our freedom rightly in the establishment of justice in our communities and among the nations, to the glory of your holy Name; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Allen, Patricia. "SJU Announces Details of Sculpture to Mark 50 Years of New Catholic–Jewish Relationship." Saint Joseph's University. April 24, 2015 . link . ​ Bard, Mitchell G. "Papal Bulls." Jewish Virtual Library. link . Berenbaum, Michael. "Auschwitz." Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Britannica, 2010–present. link . Boissoneault, Lorraine. 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