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Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction In his letter to the Ephesians, the apostle Paul wrote, "So Christ himself gave the apostles, the prophets, the evangelists, the pastors and teachers, to equip his people for works of service, so that the body of Christ may be built up" ( Eph. 4:11–12 ). This model is the fivefold ministry of the first-century church. Paul's letters also refer to a threefold leadership model of bishop (Greek: episkopos ; G1985 , "overseer"), presbyter ( presbuteros ; G4245 , "elder"), and deacon ( diakonos ; G1249 , "server") that many scholars believe reflected a gradual shift in Christianity from decentralized local governance toward hierarchy ( 1 Tim. 3:1–3 ). However, early church leadership was a function rather than an office. We tend to use transliterations of biblical Greek terms for these various responsibilities, which causes us to view them as positions imbued with rank and divine privileges. Moreover, we must reconsider words such as "ordination" to determine if they accurately reflect the original intent of the authors. ​ Jesus warns us, "You know that the rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wants to be first must be your slave—just as the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many" ( Matt. 20:25–28 ). This lesson explores Jesus' definition of  servant leadership , exemplified by the servant leader par excellence. This definition rules out all forms of intercession and mediation, including those of popes, monarchical bishops, and even local pastors who attempt to act as intermediaries between God and the churches they lead. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Apostles & Prophets Today, the words "apostle" and "prophet" are among the most commonly misused and abused terms in discussions of church leadership. Many self-appointed leaders and even the most casual Bible readers claim to be apostles and prophets "led only by the Spirit" when they teach false doctrine, a dubious appeal to God's authority. If we interpret the meaning of the biblical Greek words apostolos ( G652 ) and prophētēs ( G4396 ) instead of romanizing the letters, they translate as "delegate" and "spokesperson." Simply put, only God appoints individuals to send or publicly communicate on his behalf. If the false teachers who claim to be apostles and prophets knew the responsibilities and consequences of being an apostle or a prophet, they would never call themselves such. In ancient politics, the penalty for misrepresenting the king to a foreign ruler was death; this was also considered God's punishment for false prophets according to the Law of Moses ( Deut. 18:20 ). Indeed, both the words "apostle" and "prophet" carry powerful political implications. To be an apostle means to be sent by God and formally represent heaven's kingdom as an emissary to the unbelieving world. The prophet resides in the same embassy, advising those who are unfamiliar with the King about his intentions. Remember, the primary Hebrew prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah were advisors to Israel's monarchs ( Ezra 1:1 ; 2 Chron. 32:32 , 36:22 ). Philip's daughters and other prophets foretold God's kingdom coming to earth as Jesus' disciples shared the good news of his resurrection ( Acts 21:9 ; 1 Cor. 13:2 ). ​ The primary meaning of "apostle" in Scripture referred to the twelve men Jesus appointed as his leadership team during his ministry years, mainly because they were immersed by John the Baptist and witnessed the resurrected Christ ( Acts 1:22 ). Paul was a later apostle. However, he was not one of the twelve and persecuted the church; he was an eyewitness to the resurrected Jesus ( 1 Cor. 9:1–2 ). The third and final meaning of "apostle" describes those men or women who founded new churches in places where none yet existed ( Rom. 11:13 , 16:7 ). For example, Epaphras started churches in the Lycus Valley cities of Laodicea, Hierapolis, and his native Colossae ( Col. 4:12–14 ). Therefore, an apostle today would be someone who found a mission or Christian community in a place that desperately needs one. While none of us has seen the resurrected Jesus for ourselves, it is still possible for us to be emissaries of God's kingdom in places where the gospel has yet to reach. Patrick Schneider Overseers & Elders Paul warned the Ephesian church elders: "Keep watch over yourselves and all the flock of which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers. Be shepherds of the church of God, which he bought with his own blood" ( Acts 20:28 ). He also gave these instructions to Timothy of Lystra: Whoever aspires to be an overseer desires a noble task. Now the overseer is to be above reproach, faithful to his wife, temperate, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable, able to teach, not given to drunkenness, not violent but gentle, not quarrelsome, not a lover of money. He must manage his own family well and see that his children obey him, and he must do so in a manner worthy of full respect. (If anyone does not know how to manage his own family, how can he take care of God's church?) He must not be a recent convert, or he may become conceited and fall under the same judgment as the devil. He must also have a good reputation with outsiders, so that he will not fall into disgrace and into the devil's trap ( 1 Tim. 3:1–7 ). Paul wrote to Titus: Since an overseer manages God's household, he must be blameless—not overbearing, not quick-tempered, not given to drunkenness, not violent, not pursuing dishonest gain. Instead, he must be hospitable, one who loves what is good, who is self-controlled, upright, holy and disciplined. He must hold firmly to the trustworthy message as it has been taught, so that he can encourage others by sound doctrine and refute those who oppose it ( Titus 1:7–9 ). In the first century, the apostles carefully "appointed elders for them in each church and, with prayer and fasting, committed them to the Lord, in whom they had put their trust" ( Acts 14:23 ). Notice that Luke used the word "appointed" instead of "ordained," as we say in modern Christendom. Yes, there is a difference. The Greek verb cheirotoneō ( G5500 ) refers to the laying on of hands, akin to how a leader selects their next-in-command by hand. However, this has to do with one human being appointing another human being. This ordination is not one by which God delegates or anoints church leaders. To be sure, Paul used this word when he wrote, "For just as through the disobedience of the one man the many were made sinners, so also through the obedience of the one man the many will be made righteous" ( Rom. 5:19 ). Another Greek verb sometimes mistranslated as "to ordain" is kathistēmi ( G2525 ), which means "to stand down" and refers to the delegation of authority. Strictly speaking, "ordination" has to do with God "thoroughly commanding" ( diatassō ; G1299 , "ordain") leaders to do his will ( 1 Cor. 9:14 ), but in Scripture, we know that he delegates the task of appointing leaders to our local churches ( 2 Cor. 8:19 ). When some Bible translators deliberately misinterpret words, they endorse errors such as ordination and clericalism instead of the original context. In the New Testament, there is no ceremony for anointing leaders. The authors only called Jesus "anointed" because they recognized his unique messianic identity as both king and priest of Israel ( John 1:41 ; Acts 10:38 ). In the Old Testament, only kings and priests were "anointed," meaning they had olive oil poured over their heads ( Lev. 8:12 , 21:10 ; 1 Sam. 10:1 ; 2 Kgs. 9:6 ). However, way too many church leaders call themselves "anointed," not realizing they are claiming to be Messiah and Christ , titles belonging to Jesus alone. The only time a New Testament author mentioned an anointing ceremony was by church leaders rather than for them: "Is anyone among you sick? Let them call the elders of the church to pray over them and anoint them with oil in the name of the Lord" ( James 5:14 ). Paul informed us, "Now it is God who makes both us and you stand firm in Christ. He anointed us, set his seal of ownership on us, and put his Spirit in our hearts as a deposit, guaranteeing what is to come" ( 2 Cor. 1:21–22 ) in the order of salvation. In the same way, the apostle John wrote: "But you have an anointing from the Holy One, and all of you know the truth" ( 1 John 2:20 ), implying that Jesus anoints all believers. Likewise, the apostle Peter wrote, "As you come to him, the living Stone—rejected by humans but chosen by God and precious to him—you also, like living stones, are being built into a spiritual house to be a holy priesthood, offering spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ" ( 1 Pet. 2:4–5 ). Courtesy of LightWorkers Media Servers in Leadership The server is an administrator of the church. They are responsible for the budget and other administrative responsibilities. Servers must be "known to be full of the Spirit and wisdom" ( Acts 6:3 ). Their function is an actual service rather than an honorary title given to long-term members. They are the ecclesiastical counterpart of a server in a restaurant today: "It would not be right for us to neglect the ministry of the word of God in order to wait on [ diakoneō ; G1247] tables" ( Acts 6:2 ). This coincided with the appointment of the servers Stephen, Philip, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmenas, and Nicolaus ( Acts 6:5 ). ​ These scriptural qualifications for servers: In the same way, deacons are to be worthy of respect, sincere, not indulging in much wine, and not pursuing dishonest gain. They must keep hold of the deep truths of the faith with a clear conscience. They must first be tested; and then if there is nothing against them, let them serve as deacons. In the same way, the women [who are deacons] are to be worthy of respect, not malicious talkers but temperate and trustworthy in everything. A deacon must be faithful to his wife and must manage his children and his household well. Those who have served well gain an excellent standing and great assurance in their faith in Christ Jesus ( 1 Tim. 3:8–13 ). ​ Both men and women served in the first-century diaconate. Historically, the early church appointed female deacons, as attested by Canon 15 of the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451 that lowered their minimum age from sixty to forty years ( 1 Tim. 5:9 ). Furthermore, Paul recognized Phoebe of Cenchreae as a deacon in his letter to the Romans ( Rom. 16:1 ; see " Mutuality & Praiseworthy Women "). Courtesy of Affirm Films Evangelists & Teachers ​ When Paul wrote, "So Christ himself gave the apostles, the prophets, the evangelists, the pastors and teachers" ( Eph. 4:11 ),  the koinē  Greek language did not have commas and other punctuation marks. This fact leads some readers to conclude that pastors and teachers are the same, while others view them separately. The word "pastor" is a Latin translation of the Greek  word "poimēn" ( G4166 ), meaning "shepherd." Ephesians 4:11 is the only verse in which poimēn alludes to the pastoral ministry of anyone besides Jesus, who alone is the Good Shepherd ( Poimēn ho Kalos ; John 10:1–18 ). Every elder is a pastor, and many churches today recognize this distinction when delineating roles such as teaching pastors, senior pastors, youth pastors, etc. However, many churches identify one elder as their "pastor," allowing him to dominate the entire church, which violates Scripture. Peter admonished us: ​ To the elders among you, I appeal as a fellow elder and a witness of Christ's sufferings who also will share in the glory to be revealed: Be shepherds of God's flock that is under your care, watching over them—not because you must, but because you are willing, as God wants you to be; not pursuing dishonest gain, but eager to serve; not lording it over those entrusted to you, but being examples to the flock. And when the Chief Shepherd appears, you will receive the crown of glory that will never fade away. In the same way, you who are younger, submit yourselves to your elders. All of you, clothe yourselves with humility toward one another, because, "God opposes the proud but shows favor to the humble" ( 1 Pet. 5:1–5 ; cf. Prov. 3:34 ). ​ What appears to be a fivefold ministry in Ephesians and a threefold ministry in Paul's general letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) were all the same roles and responsibilities within one overall ministry. Many words are interchangeable and probably represent a difference in local jargon. Consider the differences between an American president and a Canadian prime minister, offices that share many of the same functions but symbolize unique ideals. A teacher ( G1320 ; didaskalos ) taught lessons from Scripture and may or may not have been charged with other tasks ( Acts 18:26 ). An evangelist ( G2099 ; euaggelistēs ) was someone like Matthew, Mark, Luke, or John who wrote accounts of Jesus' life or who proclaimed the good news ( G2098 ; euaggelion ) of his resurrection ( 2 Tim. 4:5 ). Their role emphasized the public delivery of a message rather than personal interaction. Evangelists were like town criers who declared the arrival of the Roman emperor before his official visits or tours. However, they proclaimed God's royal incarnation of Jesus as the " KING OF KINGS AND LORD OF LORDS " ( Rev. 19:16 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion When examining the early Christian models of leadership in Jesus' teachings and Paul's writings, it becomes clear that leadership in the church differs significantly from how authority operates in the secular world. Jesus taught and demonstrated servant leadership, which involves leading through humble service rather than power or control. While the church developed specific roles for leaders over time, it is essential to consider whether these roles genuinely reflect the original message of the New Testament. By following the example of servant leadership, we honor Jesus' teaching and create a church community where everyone is encouraged to serve, helping one another grow spiritually and stay united in faith. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; in your wise providence, you appoint leaders for your church's mission. Give grace to your servants, to whom the keys of your kingdom are now given: so empower them with the truth of sound doctrine, and endue them with the holiness of life, that they may faithfully serve before you to the glory of your great name, and the benefit of your holy church; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Atkerson, Stephen E. New Testament Church Dynamics: Help for Bi-vocational, House-Church, and Small-Church Leaders . 2nd ed. Atlanta: New Testament Reformation Fellowship, 2024. ⸻. The Practice of the Early Church: A Theological Workbook . Atlanta: New Testament Reformation Fellowship, 2024. Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ ​​​Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. ​ González, Justo L. A History of Christian Thought, Vol. 1: From the Beginnings to the Council of Chalcedon . Nashville: Abingdon, 1987. ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Karras, Valerie A. "Female Deacons in the Byzantine Church." Church History 73, no. 2 (2004): 272–316. link . ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. Percival, Henry R. trans. "The Fourth Ecumenical Council: The Council of Chalcedon—Canon XV." In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Ser. 2, Vol. 14: The Seven Ecumenical Councils . Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1899. Scharf, Greg R., and Arthur Kok. New Elder's Handbook: A Biblical Guide to Developing Faithful Leaders . Grand Rapids: Baker, 2018. Toon, Peter, L. Roy Taylor, Paige Patterson, and Sam E. Waldron. Who Runs the Church? Four Views on Church Government . Counterpoints. Edited by Steven B. Cowan and Paul E. Engle. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004. Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019.

Daniel Sandvik Introduction Atonement involves reparation for an offense or injury, especially the reconciliation of God and humankind through Jesus' sacrificial death. As a verb, atone means "at one," as in the spirit of harmony between two previously estranged people. However, we must not confuse this oneness with God sharing his divinity. Jesus alone shares the state of "at-one-ness" with God in that sense ( John 3:16–18 , 10:30 ). ​ The New Testament concept of atonement builds upon the Old Testament theme of propitiation, yet it also expands upon it. Propitiation accurately defines the Hebrew rites of animal sacrifice because the Israelites did them to receive or regain God's favor. Leviticus, the portion of the Law of Moses that God assigned to the Levitical priests, reads, "[He will] and do with this bull just as he did with the bull for the sin offering. In this way, the priest will make atonement for the community, and they will be forgiven. Then he shall take the bull outside the camp and burn it as he burned the first bull. This is the sin offering for the community" ( Lev. 4:20–21 ). Moreover, Jews observe the Day of Atonement (Hebrew: Yom Kippur ; H3117 , H3725 ) with extensive fasting, prayers, and synagogue liturgies. It is the most sacred day in the Hebrew calendar, and they grieve over their sins as a community, repenting before God ( Lev. 16:1–34 , 23:26–32 ; Num. 29:7–11 ). However, neither the Messianic Jews nor we Christian Gentiles need to commemorate the Day of Atonement. The author of Hebrews wrote: ​ The Law is only a shadow of the good things that are coming—not the realities themselves. For this reason, it can never, by the same sacrifices repeated endlessly year after year, make perfect those who draw near to worship. Otherwise, would they not have stopped being offered? For the worshipers would have been cleansed once for all, and would no longer have felt guilty for their sins. But those sacrifices are an annual reminder of sins. It is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins. . . . And by that will, we have been made holy through the sacrifice of the body of Jesus Christ once for all ( Heb. 10:1–4 , 10 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Atonement Themes In Christian theology, there are seven primary theories of atonement. Unlike the other constructs of systematic theology, atonement soteriology allows for complementary views rather than contradictory ones. Each approach seeks to answer how Jesus atoned for our sins and what cosmic significance this has for all creation. Instead of discussing each atonement theory in isolation, this article considers the biblical themes of vicarious or substitutionary atonement, the eschatological defeat of the devil, and our share in Jesus' death and resurrection. In chronological order from church history, the seven models are: ransom, recapitulation, satisfaction, penal substitution, moral influence, governmental, and Christ the Victor (Latin: Christus Victor ). Nevertheless, all of them match the literary themes of Scripture. From a first-century or historical-grammatical perspective, we must understand Jesus' atonement as an entire narrative of redemption, holiness, justice, and fulfillment. It is essential to recognize these atonement theories, as each represents an attempt to grasp the profound theological mystery of Jesus' work on the cross rather than a definitive explanation that excludes the others. Let us delve a bit deeper into each of these theories: Ransom theory : This theory posits that Jesus' death was a ransom paid to Satan to free humanity from bondage. It draws from passages like Mark 10:45 , where Jesus speaks of giving his life as a ransom for many. Recapitulation theory : This theory, associated with the Greek bishop Irenaeus of Lugdunum (c. AD 130–c. 202), posits that Jesus lived a perfect life to recapitulate or redo Adam's life in obedience, thereby reversing Adam's disobedience and its consequences. Satisfaction theory : Developed primarily by the Italian-born theologian and philosopher Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033–1109), this theory argues that Christ's death satisfied God's justice in response to human sin. Penal substitution theory : This view holds that Jesus took the punishment humans deserved for their sins upon himself, satisfying the demands of justice. It's based on passages like Isaiah 53:5–6 and Romans 3:25 . Moral influence theory : This theory, associated with the French theologian and philosopher Peter Abelard (1079–1142), emphasizes that Jesus' death serves as a moral example, inspiring humans to repentance and transformation through love. Governmental theory , developed mainly by Dutch theologian and legal scholar Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), argues that Christ's death demonstrates God's justice while allowing for the forgiveness of sins without compromising divine law. Christus Victor : This theory, often associated with early church fathers such as Origen of Alexandria (c. 185–c. 254) and later articulated by Swedish bishop Gustaf Aulén (1879–1977), views Jesus' death and resurrection as a victory over the powers of sin, death, and the devil. It emphasizes the cosmic battle and liberation from bondage. While these theories emphasize different aspects of atonement, they are not mutually exclusive; instead, they complement each other. They often complement one another, offering various facets of Christ's multifaceted work on the cross. Understanding Jesus' atonement requires a holistic approach, considering the richness of biblical themes and theological reflection throughout history. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Christ the Substitute The basic idea of atonement is that God, representing final justice, holds us responsible for our sins (Greek: hamartia ; G266 , lit. "miss the mark"). In this area of Christian doctrine, we must shun anthropomorphism , the idolatrous representation of God in human form. In this case, he is the omnipresent Logos ( G3056 ; cf. John 1:1 ), the highest form of truth and jurisprudence. This legal framework is not a random metaphor, but rather established by the Law of Moses ( Rom. 3:19–20 ). As fallen human beings, we have radical depravity that makes us violators, criminals, and rebel sinners ( Rom. 3:10–12 ; cf. Pss. 14:1–3 , 53:1–3 ; Eccl. 7:20 ). We are treacherous "Judases" culpable for many wicked things. God offers us a way of atonement for our revolting behavior in his mercy. The apostle Paul wrote, "For the wages of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord" ( Rom. 6:23 ). Final justice requires us to be convicted and sentenced to the death penalty. We are "dead men walking" in our trespasses of the Law of Moses. Unlike our modern court systems, God allowed the Jews to atone for their sins with a substitutionary offering, meaning an innocent animal had to die in the place of a guilty person. However, this atonement required a cycle of daily and yearly sacrifices at the Jerusalem temple. ​ Jesus became the Lamb of God to take away the world's sins as the ultimate sacrifice ( John 1:29 ). Theologically liberal churchgoers who misunderstand or deny God in the Trinity ( see " Trinity: Jewish & Gentile Views ") employ the phrase "cosmic child abuse" to slander the doctrine of substitutionary atonement. They confuse Jesus' messianic "Son of God" title ( see " Christology: Titles of Jesus ") for the literal conception of a child. God came to sacrifice himself willingly to keep us from paying the penalty for our evil deeds. Jesus, as the incarnate Logos , came as a human being with the divinely essential DNA flowing through his veins ( see " Definition of Chalcedon "). Justice cannot be waived, and God does not offer suspended sentences or clemency. Jesus' atonement "covers" (Hebrew: kafar ; H3722 ) our sins so that God does not consider them as evidence against us. This term alluded to the mercy seat that covered the Ark of the Covenant when God appeared to Israel on their Day of Atonement ( Exod. 25:17–22 , 37:1–9 ). Jesus' innocence and his willingness to acquit us convince God to deny the admissibility, authenticity, completion, and reliability of the evidence stacked against us ( 2 Cor. 5:21 ). As the Lamb of God, Jesus took away the guilt of our sins by choosing to drink the vintage of God's wrath during his crucifixion ( Matt. 26:39 ; Mark 14:36 ; Luke 22:42 ; cf. Isa. 51:17 , 22 ; Jer. 25:15–16 ; Rev. 14:10 , 16:19 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Christ the Victor The victory of Christ Jesus began with the payment of a ransom. In our day, we usually think of ransom as payment when a criminal syndicate kidnaps someone. However, its classical definition is more synonymous with "bail," money that releases a prisoner. The legal framework of the Law of Moses also relates to the ransom and Christus Victor models of atonement. For example, Moses wrote, "Receive the atonement money from the Israelites and use it for the service of the tent of meeting. It will be a memorial for the Israelites before the L ORD , making atonement for your lives" ( Exod. 30:16 ). This implies that God expected the people of Israel to offer monetary payment for their sins. This atonement was a substitute for their blood, which gives life to humans and animals alike. The loss of blood results in death; therefore, the ransom served as a symbol of death. However, Jesus fulfilled this payment when he died on the cross, giving his lifeblood to those who repent of their sins. Simon Peter wrote, "For you know that it was not with perishable things such as silver or gold that you were redeemed from the empty way of life handed down to you from your ancestors, but with the precious blood of Christ, a lamb without blemish or defect" ( 1 Pet. 1:18–19 ). He paid this ransom to the Father, not to the devil, as some theologians, such as Origen or Augustine of Hippo (354–430), a Numidian theologian, have mistakenly assumed in the past ( Rom. 6:22–23 ). Jesus owes the devil nothing. Instead, the Father subjected all things under Christ as Paul testified, "For he must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet" ( 1 Cor. 15:25 ; cf. Ps. 110:1 ) and, "God placed all things under his feet and appointed him to be head over everything for the church" ( Eph. 1:22 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Sharing in Jesus' Death & Resurrection ​ The ​author of Hebrews wrote, "But when this priest had offered for all time one sacrifice for sins, he sat down at the right hand of God, and since that time he waits for his enemies to be made his footstool. For by one sacrifice, he has made perfect forever those who are being made holy" ( Heb. 10:12–14 ). This verse means that Jesus made the atonement for our sins once, and it covers them for all of history. Moreover, we are still waiting for him to be the total Christus victor , which will happen at the world's end. In the meantime, we must crucify our flesh every day to avoid sin, like Jesus gave up his life for crucifixion ( Gal. 5:24 ; cf. Matt. 16:24–26 ). We must also receive baptism ( see " Baptism: Immersed in Christ "), as Paul testified: We were, therefore, buried with him through baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life. For if we have been united with him in a death like his, we will certainly also be united with him in a resurrection like his. For we know that our old self was crucified with him so that the body ruled by sin might be done away with, that we should no longer be slaves to sin ( Rom. 6:4–6 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion Atonement is the concept of reconciling people with God. In the Old Testament, people sought to regain God's favor by offering sacrifices, such as animals. These sacrifices were meant to reconcile the relationship between them and God. However, the New Testament introduces a more profound understanding through the death of Jesus Christ. His sacrifice is different because it is a permanent solution to sin, not just a temporary one like the animal sacrifices. This significant difference shows that Jesus, by his crucifixion, made it possible for us to be genuinely at peace with God. While traditions like the Day of Atonement are still important in the Jewish faith, Christians believe that Jesus' sacrifice, once and for all, provides true reconciliation with God. So, atonement is about more than rituals; it is about accepting the power of Jesus' sacrifice to restore us to a right relationship with God. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, king of the universe; for you are mindful of your promise. Think of us, your servants, and when we shall depart, speak to our spirits these loving words: "Today you shall be with me in joy." Lord Jesus, remember us, your servants who trust in you when our tongues cannot speak, when the sight of our eyes fails, and when our ears are stopped. Let our spirits always rejoice in you and be joyful about our salvation, which you have purchased for us. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Eden, Ami. "Yom Kippur 101." My Jewish Learning. link . Kimber, Brandon, dir. American Gospel: Christ Crucified . Transition, 2019. Video, 2:46. link . ​ Nadler, Sam. Messiah in the Feasts of Israel . Charlotte: Word of Messiah, 2010. Pate, C. Marvin. From Plato to Jesus: What Does Philosophy Have to Do with Theology? Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2011. ​ Pugh, Ben. "Ransom, Substitute, Scapegoat, God: Is There One Doctrine of the Atonement." The Church Times (blog). Hymns Ancient & Modern. March 29, 2018. link .

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction The New Testament writers used the phrases "kingdom of God" and "kingdom of heaven" almost interchangeably. However, some key differences exist between the meanings of these scriptural terms in their respective contexts. The phrase "Kingdom of heaven" appears 34 times, while "Kingdom of God" appears 75 times in the New International Version (NIV) translation of the New Testament ( see here and here ). Of the 34 times that the "kingdom of heaven" appears in the New Testament, 31 belong to Matthew. This observation means that Matthew replaced the phrase "kingdom of God" with "kingdom of heaven" when reporting the same narratives that Mark and Luke had also written ( Matt. 4:17 ; Mark 1:15 ). Matthew was writing to a Jewish audience with the intent of proving Jesus' messiahship to them. So, he observed the Jewish tradition of extreme caution when writing God's name ( Exod. 20:7 ). ​ Paleo-Christian Press Kingdom: A Political & Spiritual Reality ​ At the beginning of his ministry, Jesus read from the scroll of Isaiah in his hometown synagogue in Nazareth. He said, "The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to set the oppressed free, to proclaim the year of the Lord's favor" ( Luke 4:18–19 ; cf. Isa. 61:1–2 ). Churchgoers today often choose between a conservative reading of this passage that emphasizes soteriology and a liberal one highlighting social justice, to the exclusion of the other. However, this distinction is flawed and anachronistic. The first-century Jews understood the prophet Isaiah's words to foretell Israel's sovereignty, a time without empire and Gentile oppression. However, Jesus promised something better than mere politics: true existential freedom in the present and the future. Salvation for Christians is not some religious duty; it is God resurrecting us to build the kingdom of heaven here on earth. This statement encapsulates the essence of discipleship: learning to evangelize both the spiritual and economic poor, bringing healing and justice, and proclaiming God's mercy. In the West, our church leaders often reduce the gospel to "going to heaven." However, God's purpose in becoming the incarnate Jesus was to bring heaven to us on earth. The previous rites and traditions of the Jerusalem temple were shadows of the kingdom of heaven, but they were not the actual kingdom. Neither were the reigns of David and Solomon the kingdom of God in its most total sense. First-century Jews expected a kingdom of this kind, where the Messiah would overthrow the Romans and establish an independent Jewish state. From their perspective, Jesus was a false messiah ( see " Historicity of Jesus "). However, we know that Jesus is the Messiah most authentically, so we must be prepared to define God's kingdom in a manner that satisfies the political  and  spiritual overtones that Scripture attributes to the word. Remember that after Jesus' resurrection, his apostles inquired, "Lord, are you at this time going to restore the kingdom to Israel?" ( Acts 1:6 ). Notice that Jesus did not downplay the political reality of God's kingdom. He then emphasized a future revelation of that idea with a present application: It is not for you to know the times or dates the Father has set by his own authority. But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you; and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth ( Acts 1:7–8 ). ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion ​ In the Acts of the Apostles, Luke made the apostolic mission clear: proclaim the kingdom of God. The phrase appears eight times in Acts, starting with this testimony about Jesus: "After his suffering, he presented himself to them and gave many convincing proofs that he was alive. He appeared to them for forty days and spoke about the kingdom of God" ( Acts 1:3 ). The kingdom began on Pentecost ( Joel 2:28–32 ; Acts 2:15–36 ), and Luke reveals how the apostles—especially Paul of Tarsus—went on to preach the kingdom coming into the world. Paul suffered much violence to that end ( Acts 14:22 , 19:8 , 20:25 , 28:23 , 31 ). Make no mistake: Jesus and the apostles did not risk death over the religious belief in an afterlife. Instead, they knew God was bringing his kingdom into the world fully. English theologian N. T. Wright (b. 1948) explains this concept in How God Became King: The Forgotten Story of the Gospels (HarperOne, 2016). Yes, through his only-begotten Son, Jesus, God became King in a world that wanted nothing to do with him. The word "kingdom" should make us uncomfortable, to say the least, especially those of us who live in Western democracies and demand that our "unalienable rights" be upheld, no matter what. God's kingdom is not a republic, but neither is God a lawless tyrant. By becoming Christians, we accept that we are mere citizens of a monarchy and that we give up our rights to self-governance. Remember when the ancient Israelites wanted a king like their pagan neighbors rather than the heavenly rule of God? ( 1 Sam. 8 ). Today, we must not do the same thing by lionizing our political leaders over Jesus, not confusing cheap soundbites and talking points for gospel truth. The kingdom of heaven is here , but only when we see justice and righteousness as the rule of law for all humankind. God's kingdom is also here whenever we see evil be overcome by good ( Rom. 12:21 ). Nevertheless, the kingdom of heaven is not yet because we await Jesus' return to earth to bring a thousand-year reign and then final victory over the devil ( see " Revelation: Then, Now & Not Yet "). Just as ancient Israel had its capital in Jerusalem, we hope for New Jerusalem to be the capital of God's kingdom that has yet to arrive ( Rev. 21:1–3 ). We believe that Jesus has died, risen, and will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; for you guide our feet into the way of peace, having taken away the world's sin by the death of your Son, our Lord, Jesus the Messiah. He will open the kingdom of heaven to all who believe in him, saying, "Come, blessed of my Father; inherit the kingdom prepared for you." Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ ​Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ Pratt, Tom. "The King and His Kingdom Are Coming." Institute for Faith, Work & Economics. December 15, 2021. link . Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020. Wright, N. T. How God Became King: The Forgotten Story of the Gospels . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016. ​ ⸻. Simply Jesus: A New Vision of Who He Was, What He Did, and Why He Matters . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2018. ​ ⸻. Surprised by Hope: Rethinking Heaven, the Resurrection, and the Mission of the Church . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2018. ​ Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019.

Courtesy of LightWorkers Media Introduction Three distinct theological viewpoints describe the fall of Adam and Eve—and, by extension, all humankind: 1) ancestral sin, 2) original sin, and 3) original blessing. The most common one in Western churches is original sin , meaning "that human nature has been morally and ethically corrupted due to the disobedience of humankind's first parents to God's revealed will" (Shafavaloff). However, the ancestral sin perspective was the most common in the early church, leading up to the formulation of original sin by the Carthaginian theologian Augustine of Hippo (354–430). Eastern Orthodox presbyter Antony Hughes observes, "It is suggested that the doctrine of ancestral sin naturally leads to a focus on human death and divine compassion as the inheritance from Adam, while the doctrine of original sin shifts the center of attention to human guilt and divine wrath." The primary reason Augustine defined original sin was to defend the practice of infant baptism, which was not the method of the early Christian church ( see " Baptism: Immersed in Christ "). In other words, if infants inherit God's condemnation of original sin from their parents, Augustine believed they must be baptized to stop it from further corrupting children throughout their lifetimes. Therefore, we lost the image of God (Latin: imago Dei ) that all human beings had before the fall of Adam and Eve ( Gen. 1:26–27 ). This idea was expanded by the French theologian John Calvin (1509–1564) to say we are all totally depraved and incapable of seeking God on our own ( see " God's Will & Our Free Choices "). In contrast, the original blessing means we still possess God's image and our libertarian free will, allowing us to know God without being limited by sin. Theologians generally ascribe this view to British theologian Pelagius (c. 354–c. 418), a rival of Augustine. However, true biblical theology implies an equilibrium between original sin and original blessing, known as ancestral sin , which was the early church's position for more than three hundred years before Augustine and Pelagius. The primary distinction between ancestral sin and original sin is that humankind inherited its sinful nature through genealogical factors, rather than genetic ones. Thus, ancestral sin takes a therapeutic approach to the sin-nature rather than the judicial approach of original sin. ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Jesus: The Solution to Ancestral Sin If humankind were totally depraved according to original sin , Jesus would have been unable to live among us. Instead, the evangelist John made it clear: "The Word became flesh and made his home among us. We have seen his glory, glory like that of a father's only son, full of grace and truth" ( John 1:14 ). In contrast, Augustine believed that humankind lost God's image after the fall, with original sin being transferred to everyone through conception and birth. He based much of his view on Plato's (427–347 BC) theory of forms, which stated that all matter is a corrupted "shadow" of a higher universal ideal. Yet, many Protestants today distinguish between the spiritual inclination to sin and a physical one—the doctrine of original sin cannot exist without the latter. Many church leaders refer to Psalm 51, when King David repented, "Surely I was sinful at birth, sinful from the time my mother conceived me" ( Ps. 51:5 ). Nevertheless, David was using hyperbole , exaggerating the level of guilt about committing adultery with Bathsheba. He was not making a doctrinal statement about God's image formed in all humankind. That said, our will lies in bondage to sin. For this reason, the concept of libertarian free will is categorically impossible. Paul of Tarsus wrote, "The mind governed by the flesh is hostile to God; it does not submit to God's law, nor can it do so. Those who are in the realm of the flesh cannot please God" ( Rom. 8:7–8 ). We cannot be righteous without God, which is why Jesus atoned for our sins and saved us from them. Paul also said, "But now apart from the law the righteousness of God has been made known, to which the Law and the Prophets testify. This righteousness is given through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe. There is no difference between Jew and Gentile, for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" ( Rom. 3:21–23 ). ​ Paul warned: "People will be lovers of themselves, lovers of money, boastful, proud, abusive, disobedient to their parents, ungrateful, unholy, without love, unforgiving, slanderous, without self-control, brutal, not lovers of the good, treacherous, rash, conceited, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God—having a form of godliness but denying its power. Have nothing to do with such people" ( 2 Tim. 3:2–5 ). Paul alluded to our inclination to sin (Hebrew: yetzer ha-ra ; H3336 , H7451 ). He also contrasted Adam and Jesus when he said, "For if, by the trespass of the one man, death reigned through that one man, how much more will those who receive God's abundant provision of grace and the gift of righteousness reign in life through the one man, Jesus Christ!" ( Rom. 5:17 ). Furthermore, it is clear that whenever we think or attempt to do God's will, we fall short and sin because we put our self-interest ahead of his. That said, Paul's warning about the end times suggests that humankind has both the inclination to sin and a desire to seek God. So, our depravity cannot be total in the Augustinian or Calvinist senses. Instead, our propensity to sin is merely radical because it prevents us from obeying God willfully. The human tendency toward law, fairness, justice, and peacemaking never disappears (Hebrew: yetzer ha-tov ; H3336 , H2896 ), as if our depravity were total. However, we pollute those ideals with our means and goals. Jesus perfectly and impeccably (i.e., without sin) always followed God's will and never added his ideas to it ( John 10:30–38 ). Jesus alone follows God's will to the letter; however, he also gives us the Holy Spirit's power to remove our sinful nature during sanctification ( see " Salvation: The Romans Road "). So, where does evil come from if our depravity is not total but merely radical? Augustine believed that humans pass on sin to consecutive generations through conception and birth. However, God made sexual intercourse a good and wholesome experience between a husband and a wife. Just like the incarnation of Jesus, we must avoid calling something God created as good "evil." The ancestral tension between blessing and sin results from the fall, but God does not abandon us. Through sanctification, the Holy Spirit gradually restores the whole nature of good that the Father intended us to have. Evil is the result of human free will ( Rom. 1:30 ), which is bound to the power of sin. However, when Jesus saves, we are then freed from that bondage. The scriptures also tell us, "If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness" ( 1 John 1:9 ). While it is essential to teach the depraved nature of humankind, we also need to emphasize how God leads us toward righteousness. ​ Paleo-Christian Press Conclusion ​ In conclusion, the concept of ancestral sin offers a compelling framework for understanding the human condition in light of biblical teachings and theological reflection. Rooted in early Christian thought and embraced by Eastern Orthodox tradition, ancestral sin emphasizes the inherited consequences of Adam and Eve's disobedience, highlighting the ongoing struggle between humanity's fallen nature and God's redemptive grace. Through the lens of ancestral sin, we recognize the pervasive impact of sin on human existence, acknowledging our inherent inclination towards disobedience and separation from God. This perspective highlights the importance of humility, repentance, and reliance on God's mercy for reconciliation and restoration. As we journey in faith, may we continue to wrestle with the implications of ancestral sin, seeking a deeper understanding of our fallen nature and the boundless mercy of our loving Creator. Through repentance, faith, and reliance on God's grace, may we find healing, redemption, and the fulfillment of God's intent for humanity. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; our condition after the fall of Adam and Eve is such that we cannot turn and prepare ourselves, by our natural strength and good works, to faith and to calling upon God: Wherefore we have no power to do good works pleasant and acceptable to God, without his grace by Christ preventing us from sin, that we may have a good will, and working with us when we have that goodwill. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Brickhouse, Thomas, and Nicholas D. Smith. "Plato (427–347 BCE)." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy . University of Tennessee at Martin. link . Danker, Ryan N., ed. The Faith Once Delivered: A Wesleyan Witness to Christian Orthodoxy . Alexandria, VA: John Wesley Institute, 2022. Holder, R. Ward. "John Calvin (1509–1564)." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy . University of Tennessee at Martin. link . Hughes, Antony. "Ancestral Versus Original Sin: An Overview with Implications for Psychotherapy." St. Mary Antiochian Orthodox Christian Church (Cambridge, MA). link . Juster, Daniel. Jewish Roots: Understanding Your Jewish Faith . 2nd ed. Shippensburg, PA: Destiny Image: 2013. ​ Keathley, Kenneth D. "Molinism." Theology for the Church (blog). November 24, 2015. link . ​ ⸻. "ROSES vs. TULIP." Theology for the Church (blog). April 1, 2010. link . ​ Nally, Joseph R., Jr. "Theological Flowerbeds—DAISY vs. TULIP." Thirdmill. link . ​​ Perszyk, Ken, ed. Molinism: The Contemporary Debate . New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. ​ Shafovaloff, Aaron. "Original Sin." Theopedia . South Jordan, UT: Christian Web Foundation, 2010. link . Strickland, Michael. "Q: Original Sin or Ancestral Sin?" Renew. link . ​ West, Steven D. "The Freedom and Bondage of the Will." The Gospel Coalition. January 14, 2020. link .

Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Introduction Leadership isn't about perks or position—it's about surrender. Every step into greater influence requires letting go of something: control, comfort, convenience, even personal rights. It's not always glamorous, and it's definitely not easy. But it is worth it. Because authentic leadership—Christ-like leadership—isn't about being served, but about laying your life down for the sake of others. This isn't a list of complaints or sacrifices to resent. It's an invitation to lead with open hands. To trust God more than your reputation. To serve when it costs something. To carry weight without needing applause. These are five rights every leader must surrender—and why giving them up might be the most powerful thing you ever do. Paleo-Christian Press 1. The right to control the narrative. As leaders, one of the hardest things to surrender is the need to manage how others perceive us. People will always tell stories from their own perspectives, and the full context is rarely shared. Sometimes, for the sake of confidentiality, protecting others, or simply doing what is right, we cannot explain our side. This can feel unjust—but it's part of the cost of leadership. Even Jesus, the perfect leader, did not defend Himself when He was falsely accused: "He was oppressed and afflicted, yet He did not open His mouth; He was led like a lamb to the slaughter"  ( Isaiah 53:7 ). He entrusted Himself to the One who judges justly ( 1 Peter 2:23 ). David, too, understood this. When falsely accused or hunted down, he didn't always try to explain himself or retaliate. He let God be his defender: "Let the Lord judge between you and me... but my hand will not be against you"  ( 1 Samuel 24:12 ). As leaders, our role is to bring clarity where possible, speak truth in love, and then let God do what only He can—defend our name and protect our reputation. He is present in every room where our decisions are being discussed. We don't have to fight for approval or vindication—He's already there. I've learned to rest in this truth after making tough calls that invite misunderstanding or criticism: I made the best decision I could with the information and resources I had, and I trust God with the outcome . Paleo-Christian Press 2. The right to be understood. As leaders, we have to surrender the right to be immediately—or ever—fully understood. Yes, we strive to communicate clearly. Yes, we create space for questions, even the ones that feel repetitive or unnecessary. But at the end of the day, it's not about being perfectly understood—it's about serving those we lead. The Apostle Paul modeled this beautifully in 1 Corinthians 9:19–22 . Though he was free, he chose to become a servant to all, adapting his communication style to meet people where they were: "To the Jews I became like a Jew, to win the Jews... I have become all things to all people so that by all possible means I might save some." Or, in our modern-day remix: "To the texter, I text. To the emailer, I email. To the Facebook Messenger, I DM. To the phone caller, I pick up and talk. I do whatever it takes to reach people." Leadership requires that level of intentionality. Communication is the job. It's not always glamorous or convenient—you'll repeat yourself a hundred times, clarify what seems obvious, and answer questions long after you've moved on. But this is how trust is built. We give up the right to say, "They should already know this," or "I said it once, that's enough." Instead, we take full ownership of making sure people feel informed, seen, and valued. We remove confusion wherever we can and fill the gaps with encouragement. Never leave people wondering where they stand with you. Because good leaders don't demand to be understood—they commit to making understanding possible. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com 3. The right to defend yourself. This one's personal. I've learned it the hard way—through real life, real people, and real wounds. Every minute I spend trying to defend myself against someone's accusation or misunderstanding is a minute I'm not spending building the Kingdom. And that's a cost I'm not willing to pay. Leadership will put you in situations where people question your motives, twist your words, or assume the worst. The natural response is to set the record straight, to argue your side, to make sure everyone knows "what really happened." But that instinct can rob you of peace—and mission. Jesus modeled restraint in the face of false accusation. When He stood before Pilate and the religious leaders hurled insults and lies, "Jesus gave no answer" ( Matthew 27:12 ). Why? Because He trusted the Father to vindicate Him. Time and faithfulness are your best defenders. You don't have to rush to your own rescue—God's got you. Proverbs 26:4 reminds us, "Do not answer a fool according to his folly, or you yourself will be just like him." Not every fight is worth your energy. Not every opinion deserves a response. Instead, pray blessing over the people who misunderstand you. Wish them well. And move on. God will protect your name far better than you ever could. You just keep building. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com 4. The right to escape responsibility. It might not be your fault—but as a leader, it's still your responsibility. This is one of the toughest truths in leadership. You can do everything right, and still end up cleaning up someone else's mess. Maybe someone on your team dropped the ball. Maybe a miscommunication spiraled into conflict. Maybe someone didn't follow through. But in moments like that, we don't get to exonerate ourselves. Leadership means stepping up, even when it wasn't your slip-up. In football, after an interception, the camera cuts straight to the quarterback. Why? Because fair or not, people want to know how the leader is handling it. That's the weight of leadership. When you're the QB, the camera's on you. Jesus didn't shy away from responsibility—even for things that weren't His "fault." He stepped into our brokenness, took on our sin, and carried it to the cross. Philippians 2:7  says, "He made himself nothing by taking the very nature of a servant." That's the model. The higher you go in leadership, the more responsibility you carry. A wise leader always asks: What could I have communicated more clearly? Did I follow up the way I should have? Did I provide enough support, direction, or care? And when there's failure? Apologize. Freely. Often. Even if you weren't the one who caused it. Owning responsibility doesn't weaken your leadership—it strengthens trust. Because people don't follow perfect leaders. They follow humble ones. Paleo-Christian Press 5. The Right to "Just Do You" One of the rights you surrender as a Christian leader is the right to "just do you." The truth is—your actions never only impact you. In leadership, there's no such thing as a personal decision. Every choice you make sends ripples through your team, your volunteers, your community. Paul reminds us in 1 Corinthians 8:9 , "Be careful, however, that the exercise of your rights does not become a stumbling block to the weak." In other words: just because you can do something doesn't mean you should. Leadership means living with a heightened awareness—of your influence, your example, and the impact of your decisions. Whether it's how you spend your time, what you post online, how you carry yourself in public, or even how you speak behind closed doors—it all matters. Because people are watching. Not in a creepy way. In a you-matter-that-much kind of way. Before making a decision, wise leaders ask: How will this affect the people I lead? Will this help or hurt the team culture we're building? Could this confuse, discourage, or distract someone? Does this bring credibility to my testimony? We give up the right to live for ourselves because we've been called to live like Christ—who didn't come to be served, but to serve ( Mark 10:45 ). So no, as a leader, you don't get to "just do you." But the trade-off is beautiful: you get to be part of something bigger than yourself. You get to help shape a culture, lead a people, and build the Church. And that's worth every surrendered right.

Paleo-Christian Press Introduction The study of the Holy Spirit is called pneumatology . Before we learn about the gifts of the Holy Spirit, we must define who he is. God is a triune being comprising the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit ( see " Trinity: Jewish & Gentile Views "). The Holy Spirit is also known as the "Spirit of God," as seen when God hovered over the deep at the creation of the world ( Gen. 1:1–2 ). The Greek word pneuma ( G4151 ) can mean "spirit," "breath," or "wind." Jesus emphasized this fact when he told Nicodemus, "Flesh gives birth to flesh, but the Spirit gives birth to spirit. You should not be surprised at my saying, 'You must be born again.' The wind blows wherever it pleases. You hear its sound, but you cannot tell where it comes from or where it is going. So it is with everyone born of the Spirit" ( John 3:6–8 ). Paleo-Christian Press Fruit of the Spirit The Holy Spirit is unpredictable to us, yet the Father knows where he sends him. In keeping with Scripture and church tradition, we know the Holy Spirit proceeds (Greek: ekporeuomai ; G1607 ) from the Father alone, but that Jesus sends him from the Father ( John 14:26 , 15:26 ; see " Nicene Creed "). Therefore, the triune dynamics of God never contradict his singular purpose and identity. Jesus described the Holy Spirit as our Paraklētos ( G3875 , "Paraclete")—our Advocate, Comforter, Consoler, Counselor, Helper, and even Intercessor who runs beside us like a guide runner in a race. He also acts as our defense attorney, raising reasonable doubt before God and our earthly authorities. In his letter to the Galatians, the apostle Paul listed the fruit of the Spirit: "love, joy, peace, forbearance, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control" ( Gal. 5:22–23 ). Many of the biblical Greek words have more specific meanings: agapē ( G26 ; "steadfast love") chara ( G5479 ; "grace") eirēnē ( G1515 ; "peace") makrothumia ( G3115 ; "suspension of anger") chrēstotēs ( G5544 ; "serviceable for good use") agathōsunē ( G19 ; "inherent goodness") prautēs ( 4240 ; "gentle force") pistis ( G4102 ; "trust," "faith," "faithfulness") egkrateia ( G1466 ; "self-mastery") ​ Paleo-Christian Press Gifts of the Spirit ​ Paul wrote extensively about the gifts of the Holy Spirit (Greek: charismata ; G5486 ; "gifts of grace"), even admonishing us, "Follow the way of love and eagerly desire gifts of the Spirit, especially prophecy" ( 1 Cor. 14:1 ). He also said: ​ There are different kinds of gifts, but the same Spirit distributes them. There are different kinds of service, but the same Lord. There are different kinds of working, but in all of them and in everyone it is the same God at work. The manifestation of the Spirit is given to each one for the common good. To one there is given through the Spirit a message of wisdom, to another a message of knowledge by means of the same Spirit, to another faith by the same Spirit, to another gifts of healing by that one Spirit, to another miraculous powers, to another prophecy, to another distinguishing between spirits, to another speaking in different kinds of tongues, and to still another the interpretation of tongues. All these are the work of one and the same Spirit, and he distributes them to each one, just as he determines ( 1 Cor. 12:4–11 ​). The Spirit searches all things, even the deep things of God. For who knows a person's thoughts except their own spirit within them? In the same way no one knows the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God. What we have received is not the spirit of the world, but the Spirit who is from God, so that we may understand what God has freely given us. This is what we speak, not in words taught us by human wisdom but in words taught by the Spirit, explaining spiritual realities with Spirit-taught words. The person without the Spirit does not accept the things that come from the Spirit of God but considers them foolishness, and cannot understand them because they are discerned only through the Spirit ( 1 Cor. 2:10–14 ). ​ The author of Hebrews wrote, "God also testified to it by signs, wonders and various miracles, and by gifts of the Holy Spirit distributed according to his will" ( Heb. 2:4 ). ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Gifts: Ceased or Continue?​ ​ Christians today are divided on whether the spiritual gifts, particularly tongues and prophecy, have ceased to exist or continue to be present. Cessationism is the conviction that the gifts ceased sometime in early church history and are no longer available today. Continuationism is the belief that spiritual gifts continue and that Christians should seek to utilize them to expand the church. First Century Christian Faith teaches a careful and moderate continuationism ( see " Doctrine & Praxis "). We take a measured approach to being open to God's call, but do not consider the gifts necessary for salvation. They are gifts in the truest sense of the word in that God gives them to us for his reasons alone. Nevertheless, the historical evidence from the early church leaders shows that while some gifts continued until the third century, most ceased by the time Origen of Alexandria (AD 185–254) wrote Against Celsus around AD 248. He said: For they have no longer prophets nor miracles, traces of which to a considerable extent are still found among Christians, and some of them more remarkable than any that existed among the Jews; and these we have witnessed, if our testimony may be received" ( Against Celsus 2.8 ). Origen also testified: Moreover, the Holy Spirit gave signs of his presence at the beginning of Christ's ministry, and after his ascension, he gave still more. However, since that time, these signs have diminished, although there are still traces of his presence in a few who have had their souls purified by the gospel, and their actions regulated by its influence ( Against Celsus 7.8 ). However, we must be careful not to ascribe God's will to these observations. Early church fathers, such as Origen, may have contributed to the decline of the gifts of the Spirit during their revisions from first-century charismatic worship to the more reserved liturgical ministry of bishops and priests. We must not commit blasphemy against the Holy Spirit by denying his power in the spiritual gifts ( Matt. 12:31 ). Moreover, gifts like speaking in tongues were an act of public devotion, hence why Paul gave specific instructions about it in the context of ordered worship ( 1 Cor. 14:1–25 ). He also wrote about praying quietly in the Spirit during worship: In the same way, the Spirit helps us in our weakness. We do not know what we ought to pray for, but the Spirit himself intercedes for us through wordless groans ( Rom. 8:26 ).   And pray in the Spirit on all occasions with all kinds of prayers and requests. With this in mind, be alert and always keep on praying for all the Lord's people ( Eph. 6:18 ). Not all of the early church fathers were dismissive of the gifts. We do well to read Tertullian of Carthage (c. AD 155–c. 220), who said: Therefore, blessed ones, whom the grace of God awaits, when you ascend from that most sacred font of your new birth and spread your hands for the first time in the house of your mother, together with your brethren, ask from the Father, ask from the Lord, that his specialties of grace and distributions of gifts may be supplied you. "Ask," he says, "and you shall receive" ( On Baptism 20 ). Laughing Cat & Sunguk Kim Conclusion Understanding the Holy Spirit is fundamental to grasping the depth and complexity of the Christian faith. He is not merely an abstract concept or a distant force but is intimately involved in our lives, guiding, empowering, and transforming us. The Holy Spirit is a divine Person with intellect, emotions, and will. He comforts, teaches, and empowers believers. Furthermore, his presence is essential for the church's existence and mission, as seen in the Acts of the Apostles, where the Holy Spirit empowered the disciples to spread the gospel boldly. Therefore, pneumatology not only explores the theological understanding of the Holy Spirit but also delves into the practical implications of his presence and work in the life of the believer and the church. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; for the gifts of your Holy Spirit poured out upon prophets and evangelists to proclaim the gospel to the ends of the earth and to bring all peoples under the reign of Jesus the Messiah, our Lord. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Busenitz, Nathan. "The Gift of Tongues: Comparing the Church Fathers with Contemporary Pentecostalism." The Master's Seminary Journal 17, no. 1 (2006): 61–78. link . ​Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Gaffin, Richard B., Jr., Robert L. Saucy, C. Samuel Storms, and Douglas A. Oss. Are Miraculous Gifts for Today? Four Views . Counterpoints. Edited by Wayne A. Grudem and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996. ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. McDonnell, Kilian, and George T. Montague, eds. Christian Initiation and Baptism in the Holy Spirit: Evidence from the First Eight Centuries . 2nd ed. Wilmington, DE: Glazier, 1991. ⸻. Fanning the Flame: What Does Baptism in the Holy Spirit Have to Do with Christian Initiation? Wilmington, DE: Glazier, 1991. ​ Moore, Edward. "Origen of Alexandria (185–254 CE)." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy . University of Tennessee at Martin. link . Origen. "Against Celsus." Translated by Frederick Crombie. In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 4: Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second . Edited by A. Cleveland Coxe. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1885. Scotland, Nigel. "Signs and Wonders in the Early Catholic Church 90–451 and Their Implications for the Twenty-First Century." European Journal of Theology 10, no. 2 (2001): 155–67. link . Tertullian. "On Baptism." Translated by Sydney Thelwall. In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 3: Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian I. Apologetic; II. Anti-Marcion; III. Ethical . Edited by Allan Menzies. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1885.

Paleo-Christian Press Introduction In the bustling streets of first-century Judea, a rich tapestry of culinary traditions flourished amidst the crossroads of Jewish, Roman, and Greek cultures. From the aromatic spices of the Levant to the decadent feasts of Rome and the communal gatherings of early Christian communities, food played a central role in shaping the social fabric and religious observances of the era. The food and feasts of Judea, particularly during ancient times, were deeply intertwined with spiritual and cultural practices. These meals served not only as sustenance but also as a means of expressing identity, celebrating important events, and strengthening social bonds within the community. Paleo-Christian Press Jewish Festivals: Tradition & Faith At the heart of Jewish culinary traditions were the sacred festivals that punctuated the calendar year. Passover, commemorating the Exodus from Egypt, was a cornerstone of Jewish identity, marked by the symbolic Seder meal featuring unleavened bread, bitter herbs, and lamb—a reminder of the paschal sacrifice. Wine flowed as families recounted the story of liberation and redemption, connecting past struggles with present joys. As in many Jewish communities today, observant believers in Judea would gather with family and friends on Friday evenings to welcome the Sabbath (Hebrew: Shabbat ). These meals typically began with lighting candles and reciting blessings over wine and bread ( challah ). Traditional Sabbath foods usually included chicken soup, roasted meats, challah bread, and a variety of side dishes. The history of biblical Jewish festivals is deeply rooted in the religious and cultural traditions of the Jewish people, as outlined in the Hebrew Bible. They have been observed for thousands of years and are celebrated by Jewish communities worldwide. Here is an overview of some of the critical biblical Jewish festivals: Passover : Passover (Hebrew: Pesach ) commemorates the liberation of the Israelites from slavery in ancient Egypt, as described in the Book of Exodus. It is celebrated for seven or eight days in the spring, beginning on the fifteenth day of the Hebrew month of Nisan. The central ritual of Passover is the Seder , a special meal during which the story of the Exodus is retold, symbolic foods are eaten, and prayers are recited. The Seder meal is the focal point of Passover. It features symbolic foods such as matzo (unleavened bread), bitter herbs, and charoset (a mixture of fruits and nuts). The meal typically includes gefilte fish, brisket, and matzo ball soup. Shavuot : Shavuot , also known as the Feast of Weeks, celebrates the giving of the Torah (the Jewish religious law) at Mount Sinai. It occurs seven weeks (fifty days) after the second day of Passover, typically in late spring. Traditions associated with Shavuot include reading from the Book of Ruth, decorating homes and synagogues with flowers and greenery, and consuming dairy foods such as cheesecake and blintzes. Rosh ha-Shanah : Rosh ha-Shanah , the Jewish New Year, marks the beginning of the High Holy Days, a period of introspection and repentance leading up to Yom Kippur. It falls on the first and second days of the Hebrew month of Tishrei, usually in September or October. The blowing of the shofar (a ram's horn) is a central ritual of Rosh ha-Shanah . It symbolizes a call to repentance and God's coronation as King of the universe. Yom Kippur : Yom Kippur , the Day of Atonement, is considered the holiest day in the Jewish calendar. It is a solemn day of fasting, prayer, and repentance, during which Jews seek forgiveness for their sins. Yom Kippur occurs on the tenth day of Tishrei, following Rosh ha-Shanah . It is marked by intensive synagogue services, including prayer recitation and chanting of the Kol Nidre (Aramaic for "All Vows"). Sukkot : Sukkot , also known as the Feast of Tabernacles or Booths, commemorates the Israelites' wanderings in the desert after the Exodus. It is observed for seven days (eight in the diaspora) beginning on the fifteenth day of Tishrei, immediately following Yom Kippur. During Sukkot, Jews built and inhabited temporary outdoor shelters called sukkahs , symbolic of the Israelites' dwellings in the wilderness. The festival also includes waving the lulav and etrog (part of the "Four Species") and special prayers. Hanukkah : Hanukkah , also known as the Festival of Lights, commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its desecration by the Seleucid Empire. It is celebrated for eight days, beginning on the twenty-fifth day of Kislev, which usually falls in December. The central ritual of Hanukkah is the lighting of the menorah , a nine-branched candelabrum, each night of the festival. Other customs include playing dreidel (a spinning top game) and eating foods cooked in oil, such as latkes (potato pancakes) and sufganiyot (jelly doughnuts). In ancient Judea, the Jerusalem temple was central to religious life. Offerings of animals, grains, and other foodstuffs were presented as sacrifices to God. These offerings were often shared among the priests and worshippers as part of communal feasts. Wedding celebrations in ancient Judea were elaborate affairs, typically lasting several days and featuring an abundance of food and drink. Guests would be served a variety of dishes, including roasted meats, bread, wine, and desserts, as they celebrated the union of the bride and groom. Hospitality was highly valued in ancient Judean society, and sharing meals with guests and neighbors was a common practice. These gatherings provided opportunities for fellowship, hospitality, and mutual support within the community. Judea's food and feasts reflected the Jewish people's religious, cultural, and social values, emphasizing community, gratitude, and connection to God. Through shared meals and celebrations, individuals in ancient Judea expressed their identity, strengthened social bonds, and participated in the rich tapestry of Jewish life. These religious festivals are central to Jewish life, fostering a connection to Jewish history, tradition, and identity. They are observed with religious rituals, communal gatherings, and family celebrations, enriching the spiritual and cultural life of Jewish communities worldwide. Paleo-Christian Press Culinary Crossroads of the Mediterranean The diverse influences of the Mediterranean world enriched the culinary landscape of Judea. Roman elites reveled in lavish banquets with exotic delicacies imported from across the empire—spiced meats, seafood, and delicately prepared fruits. Wealthy households boasted kitchens equipped with advanced culinary technology, where skilled chefs crafted elaborate dishes to impress guests and assert their social status. Greek cuisine has profoundly influenced Judean cooking, contributing ingredients, culinary techniques, and flavor profiles. One significant aspect of Greek influence is the abundant use of olive oil. Olive oil, a cornerstone of Greek cuisine, also became a fundamental component in Judean cooking. Its rich flavor and versatility make it an essential element in numerous dishes, enhancing taste and texture. Moreover, Greek culinary traditions introduced a variety of herbs and vegetables that became integral to Judean cuisine. Herbs such as oregano, mint, and thyme added aroma and flavor, bringing both medicinal and nutritional benefits. These herbs were used liberally in soups, stews, and meat dishes, infusing them with layers of complexity. Thanks to Greek influence, vegetables such as cucumbers, onions, and lentils became staples in Judean cuisine. These ingredients provided sustenance for the masses and added diversity to the diet. Cooks often used cucumbers and onions in salads or pickled them to preserve them for extended periods. Lentils, a nutritious and versatile legume, were used in various dishes, from soups to side dishes and even main courses. The fusion of Greek and Judean culinary traditions yielded a rich tapestry of flavors, where simplicity, freshness, and the harmonious blending of ingredients played a central role. This culinary exchange satisfied the palates of ancient Judeans and contributed to the cultural exchange and enrichment of both societies. Paleo-Christian Press Agapē Feasts: Food & Fellowship Amidst the cultural mosaic of Roman Judea, early Christian communities emerged, forging their distinct culinary practices centered around the agapē feast—a communal meal of fellowship and mutual support. Rooted in the teachings of Jesus Christ, who shared bread and wine with his disciples at the Last Supper, these gatherings embodied the spirit of love and solidarity. Unlike the opulent banquets of the Roman elite, agapē feasts were egalitarian affairs, where the rich and poor shared a simple repast of bread, olives, and wine. Hospitality was paramount, with hosts opening their homes to travelers and strangers, embodying the Christian virtue of charity. Through shared meals and mutual aid, believers found strength and solace in a world of persecution and uncertainty. The agapē feast, or love feast, held profound significance within early Christian communities, serving as more than just a communal meal but also as a symbol of unity, compassion, and spiritual fellowship. As Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire, these gatherings became a cornerstone of Christian practice, reinforcing community bonds in the face of adversity. The simplicity of the agapē feast was intentional, reflecting the lessons of Jesus, who emphasized humility, compassion, and the importance of sharing with others. By partaking in a modest meal of bread, olives, and wine, believers sought to embody these principles, transcending social barriers and demonstrating solidarity with one another. Moreover, the agapē feast provided a refuge for believers in a society marked by persecution and instability. In the face of adversity, these communal gatherings offered a sense of belonging and support, allowing believers to find strength and solace in their shared faith and mutual aid. Hospitality played a central role in the agapē feast, reflecting the Christian virtue of charity. Hosts welcomed friends and strangers into their homes, exemplifying the spirit of generosity and inclusivity that Jesus championed. Through acts of hospitality, believers sought to emulate the love and compassion of their savior, fostering a sense of belonging and acceptance within the Christian community. Overall, the agapē feast served as a powerful expression of Christian values, uniting believers in a shared commitment to love, compassion, and mutual support. In a world marked by division and conflict, these gatherings offered a glimpse of the transformative power of faith and fellowship, inspiring generations of Christians to embody the spirit of love in their daily lives. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion In first-century Judea, the dining table was more than a place to satisfy hunger—it was a stage upon which the drama of human existence unfolded. From the sacred rites of Jewish festivals to the cosmopolitan flavors of Roman and Greek cuisine, and the communal fellowship of Christian agapē feasts, food served as a bridge between cultures, a testament to the enduring power of gastronomy to unite hearts and minds across the ages. In the humble ingredients of bread and wine, pulses and herbs, we find echoes of ancient rituals and traditions that bind communities together in shared experiences of sustenance and celebration. As we savor the flavors of antiquity, let us also savor the stories they tell of faith, fellowship, and the timeless quest for meaning amidst the banquet of life, reminding us that the simple act of sharing a meal has always been, and continues to be, a great expression of our shared humanity. Ben White Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; in your great love, you have fed us with the spiritual food and drink of the body and blood of your Son, Jesus, and have given us a foretaste of your heavenly banquet. Grant that this sacrament may be a comfort in affliction and a pledge of our inheritance in that kingdom where there is no death, neither sorrow nor crying, but the fullness of joy with all your saints; through Jesus the Messiah, who lives and reigns with you, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen. Bibliography Barclay, John M. G. Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE).  Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1996. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. Broshi, Magen. Bread, Wine, Walls, and Scrolls . The Library of Second Temple Studies. Edited by Lester L. Grabbe. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic, 2001. Colbert, Don. What Would Jesus Eat? The Ultimate Program for Eating Well, Feeling Great, and Living Longer . Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2002. ⸻. What Would Jesus Eat Cookbook: Eat Well, Feel Great, and Live Longer . Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2023. Dalby, Andrew. Food in the Ancient World from A to Z.  London: Routledge, 2003. Davies, William David, and Louis Finkelstein. The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 3, The Early Roman Period . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Grabbe, Lester L. An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus.  London: T&T Clark, 2010. Grant, Michael. The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction.  Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006. Harris, William V. Ancient Literacy.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989. Karris, Robert J. Eating Your Way Through Luke's Gospel . Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 2006. Meyers, Eric M., ed. Galilee Through the Centuries: Confluence of Cultures . Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1999. Neel, Douglas E, and Joel A. Pugh. The Food and Feasts of Jesus: The Original Mediterranean Diet, with Menus and Recipes . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013. ⸻. The Food and Feasts of the Apostle Paul: Inside the Early Church, with Menus and Recipes . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2024. Perkins, Pheme. Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels.  Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007. Rousseau, Philip, ed. A Companion to Late Antiquity.  Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. Schürer, Emil. The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 BC–AD 135) . Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1979. Shanks, Hershel. Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple . Hoboken, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999. Solomon, Norman, trans. The Talmud: A Selection.  New York: Penguin, 2009. Stark, Rodney. The Rise of Christianity: How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries.  San Francisco: HarperOne, 1997. Weiss, Zeev. The Food of the Old Testament: Meals and Foodways in Ancient Israel . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.

Lucija Introduction As Christians, we are all creationists and believe in God's intelligent design. We believe in one God, who, by the power of his spoken Word (Greek: Logos ; G3056 , "logical definition of absolute cosmic truth") alone, made the heavens and the earth "out of nothing" (Latin: ex nihilo ). He formed the world from inanimate chaos , a disorganized mess of primordial matter. This theme contrasts with ancient Near Eastern creation accounts, in which a deity fought and slew a godlike chaos monster. For example, in the Enuma Elish —a pagan myth from Babylon—Marduk defeated the cosmic serpent Tiamat and divided her carcass into heaven and earth. However, in Genesis, there is only one God, and he separated the non-living, chaotic tehom (H8415, "deep sea;" Gen. 1:2 )—a Hebrew cognate of the Babylonian tiamat —into the waters above and below the expanse ( Gen. 1:6–7 Tree of Life Version). Therefore, Genesis is a monotheistic correction of pagan myths from other Near Eastern cultures. The prophet Isaiah revisited this cosmic chaos monster theme when he wrote, "In that day, the L ORD will punish with his sword—his fierce, great and powerful sword—Leviathan the gliding serpent, Leviathan the coiling serpent; he will slay the monster of the sea" ( Isa. 27:1 ). Furthermore, the Jews were never a great maritime nation like the Greeks because they associated water with chaos. When Moses recorded Genesis, he presented the Word that God spoke not as a magical spell but as the equivalent of scientific law (e.g., gravity, thermodynamics). In his gospel, John wrote that Jesus is this divine Logos in the very form of God incarnate ( John 1:1–5 ). He derived this meaning from Greek and Jewish sources (e.g., Heraclitus, Aristotle, Plato, Philo), which defined  Logos  philosophically and theologically as the governing order of the universe. This notion contrasts with the myth of Ptah; for example, the ancient Egyptians believed he created the world with a spell that all pagans could use to harness his primordial power. Hence, the etymological meaning of "Egypt[ah]," from the Greek pronunciation Aiguptos ( G125 ) of the Egyptian name Hwt-Ka-Ptah (lit. "House of the Spirit of Ptah"), originally given to the city of Memphis. While some biblical scholars argue that the Israelites borrowed from other Near Eastern literature, their familiarity with it came as a corrective, neither flattery nor respect. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Sea of Galilee: Creation Revisited ​ For those commentators who doubt that the synoptic gospel writers Matthew, Mark, and Luke intended to portray the "historical Jesus" as the cosmic "Christ of faith," look no further than their accounts of when he calmed a windstorm on the Sea of Galilee, also known as the Sea of Tiberias or Lake Kinneret ( Matt. 8:23–27 ; Mark 4:35–41 ; Luke 8:22–25 ). Jesus reveals himself as the Word, the divine Logos , who, with mere speech—"Quiet! Be still!"—restores order to a chaotic, watery depth. When Jesus and his apostles set out on the Sea of Galilee, torrential rains opposed them. This weather was no small thunderstorm, as the Greek text referred to it as a seismos ( G4578 , "shake," "commotion," or "tempest"), from which the English word "seismic" is derived. Jesus had fallen asleep on the boat while the apostles feared they were about to capsize and drown in these hurricane-force winds and violent waves. For comparison, a 1992 storm ravaged the modern lakeside Israeli city of Tiberias when a sharkiya —a cold, dry easterly wind of hurricane force—coming off the Golan Heights at 60 miles per hour (96 kilometers per hour) caused waves between 6 and 10 feet (2 and 3 meters). In the gospel account, the Sea of Galilee became a microcosm of the Genesis creation narrative, figuratively a "small world" (Greek: mikros , kosmos ; G3398 , G2889 ). The water shook the boat like an earthquake shakes entire cities, or how cyclones and typhoons flood whole regions, threatening to kill and destroy everything in their paths. This storm carried with it the watery, monstrous chaos of creation. The apostles wondered about all this when they asked, "Who is this? Even the wind and the waves obey him!" ( Mark 4:41 ). Cerqueira Hebrew Cosmology Cosmology  refers to the   philosophical and scientific   study of the world from the Greek words  kosmos  and  logos . Biblical cosmology alluded to a disc-shaped earth supported by foundations with pillars holding up the expanse that separates the waters of heaven from the water cycle of the planet ( Gen. 1:7 TLV; cf. 1 Sam. 2:8 ; Job 9:6 ; Isa. 40:22 ). There were windows in the expanse that prevented the cosmic ocean of chaos from reaching the inhabited world ( Gen. 7:11 ). The cosmos was stable, meaning it neither rotated nor spun on an axis ( 1 Chron. 16:30 ; Pss. 93:1 , 104:5 ). Instead, the Old Testament writers believed that God suspended the world in "the deep" ocean, one with edges in which he could see through an expanse ( Job 28:24 , 38:13 ; Ps. 29:10 ). The netherworld (Hebrew: Sheol ; H7585 ) existed below the earth, "the grave" below the graves ( Pss. 49:14 , 88:11 ). Basically, Hebrew cosmology likens the entire world to a type of snow globe, which may also be shaken from its pillars ( Job 9:6 ). ​ In contemporary English, we still refer to "sunrise" and "sunset" because that is how the 24-hour day/ night cycle appears from our ground-based observation points. King Solomon, the "Teacher" (Hebrew: Kohelet ; H6953 ; see Eccl. 1:1 ) of Ecclesiastes, wrote, "The sun rises, and the sun sets, and hurries back to where it rises" ( Eccl. 1:5 ). This begs the question of whether the ancient Hebrews really believed in the geocentric ("earth-centered") universe they described, or if they merely used such imagery as poetic devices. While the Old Testament leaves many of our cosmology questions open, it points to an intelligent designer: God. The Hebrew poetry in the Old Testament describes neither a geocentric nor a heliocentric ("sun-centered") universe. The central theme was God's sovereignty, a theological concern with little correlation to our scientific method. Courtesy of www.PhotoStock.am Noahic Flood ​ ​ In Scripture, the worldwide flood, in which God instructed Noah son of Lamech to build an ark to save his family, is a cosmological event ( Gen. 6–9 ). The main takeaway from the narrative is that God saved a righteous man and his family when he released the primordial waters of chaos to destroy creation. This event reversed the Genesis creation account, though God controlled the outcome. Today, as proponents of Intelligent Design, we view the Noahic flood through the lens of history and science, while many critics dismiss it as a mythological event. Coincidentally, there are over three hundred deluge myths from nearly every ancient civilization, including the Epic of Gilgamesh from Mesopotamia. The Havasupai (lit., "people of the blue-green water"), a Native American tribe with more than 1,000 years of living in the Grand Canyon, believe that primordial floodwaters surged along the Colorado River to form it. Their local deluge account also mentions a benevolent deity who saved a noble person in a wooden vessel. The geological evidence of this Grand Canyon flood, believed to have occurred about 400,000 years ago, includes heavy boulders suspended more than 200 feet (61 meters) high along its walls. About the Noahic flood, researchers in 1993 discovered ancient streambeds, river-cut canyons, shorelines, and land surfaces buried in seafloor sediments, as well as shrub roots, all submerged by Black Sea mud more than 7,000 years ago. This flood happened when the rising Mediterranean breached the Bosporus Strait and poured salt water into the then-freshwater Black Sea, which is close to the Ararat mountains of modern-day Armenia, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Iran (pictured above; see Gen. 8:4 ). In other words, geological evidence suggests the Noahic flood changed the Black Sea's composition from fresh to salty. So, there is evidence for floods of "biblical proportions" worldwide. The New Testament, however, presents the Noahic flood in a theological context. For example, the author of Hebrews testified, "By faith Noah, when warned about things not yet seen, in holy fear built an ark to save his family. By his faith, he condemned the world and became heir of the righteousness that is in keeping with faith" ( Heb. 11:7 ). Simon Peter wrote, "God waited patiently in the days of Noah while the ark was being built. In it only a few people, eight in all, were saved through water" ( 1 Pet. 3:20 ). Although God reversed his creation with the flood, he still rewarded Noah's faithfulness and saved him. Peter compared this to baptism, a type of death and resurrection in Christ Jesus, because the cosmic chaos ocean represented death. At the same time, the ark symbolized a transformation of new life ( 1 Pet. 3:21 ). Jesus himself compared his eschatological return as the Son of Man to the Noahic flood, in which most people were too concerned with their day-to-day lives to realize the world as they knew it was about to end ( Matt. 24:37–38 ; Luke 17:26–27 ; cf. Dan. 7:9–14 ). On the last day, God will only save those who, like Noah, respond in faith. Stephen Leonardi End Times: Chaos Revisited In Revelation, John revisited the cosmic chaos monster theme from Genesis. He wrote, "So the great dragon was thrown down. The old snake, which is called the devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world, was thrown down to the earth; and his angels were thrown down with him" ( Rev. 12:9 ). This whole time, it was the devil who personified disorder in creation: the chaotic beast of the depths, the serpent in Eden ( Gen. 3:1–14 ), the sea monster Leviathan, and the great dragon at the world's end. John also applied the cosmic waters/ocean theme to the devil when he wrote: But the earth helped the woman by opening its mouth and swallowing the river the dragon had spewed out of his mouth ( Rev. 12:16 ). ​ The dragon stood on the shore of the sea. And I saw a beast coming out of the sea. It had ten horns and seven heads, with ten crowns on its horns, and on each head a blasphemous name ( Rev. 13:1 ). This theme may sound mythological to the modern ear, not just supernatural —beyond the natural world. Revelation also assumes a geocentric cosmos model, similar to Genesis. Likewise, a war between God and the chaos monster threatens to destroy his creation with its lawlessness ( 2 Thess. 2:1–7 ). Before the millennial reign of Jesus, an angel will seize "the dragon, that ancient serpent, who is the devil, or Satan, and bound him for a thousand years" ( Rev. 20:2 ). Furthermore, Revelation presents a teleology (from Greek: telos ; G5056 , "end") of creation, a philosophical and theological definition of God's final cause, function, purpose, design, and end-goal for the world. Jesus called himself this very telos when he declared, "It is done. I am the Alpha and the Omega, the Beginning and the End" ( Rev. 21:6 ), and, "I am the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End" ( Rev. 22:13 ). Alpha (Α) is the first letter of the Greek alphabet while Omega (Ω) is the last, indicating that Jesus is the ultimate reason— Logos —of all things ( John 1:1–4 ). He is everything from A to Z. Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; you are worthy of glory and praise. At your command, all things came to be: the vast expanse of interstellar space, galaxies, suns, the planets in their courses, and this fragile earth, our island home. By your will, they were created and had their being. You brought forth the human race from the primal elements and blessed us with memory, reason, and skill. You made us the stewards of creation. But we turned against you, betrayed your trust, and turned against one another. Have mercy, Lord, for we are sinners in your sight. Again and again, you called us to return. Through prophets and sages, you revealed your righteous Law. In the fullness of time, you sent your only-begotten Son, Jesus, born of a woman, to fulfill your Law, to open the way of freedom and peace for us. By his blood, he reconciled us. By his wounds, we are healed. Therefore, we praise you, joining with the heavenly chorus, prophets, apostles, and martyrs, and everyone in every generation who has looked to you in hope. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ "About Supai." Havasupai Tribe. link . ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. Bohl Gerke, Sarah, and Paul Hirt. "Havasupai Reservation." Grand Canyon History. Arizona State University. link . ​ Bolen, Todd. "The Sea of Galilee." Jerusalem Perspective . October 31, 1989. link . ​ Book of Common Prayer . New York: Church Hymnal Corporation, 1979. Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. ​ Faulkner, Danny R. "Geocentrism and Creation." Technical Journal 15, no. 2 (2001): 110–21. link . Ham, Ken, Hugh Ross, Deborah B. Haarsma, and Stephen C. Meyer. Four Views on Creation, Evolution, and Intelligent Design . Counterpoints. Edited by J. B. Stump and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017. Hillar, Marian. From Logos to Trinity: The Evolution of Religious Beliefs from Pythagoras to Tertullian . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012. ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. Leeming, David. Jealous Gods and Chosen People: The Mythology of the Middle East . New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ​ Longman, Tremper, III, and John H. Walton. The Lost World of the Flood: Mythology, Theology, and the Deluge Debate . Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2018. ​ Luckert, Karl W. Egyptian Light and Hebrew Fire: Theological and Philosophical Roots of Christendom in Evolutionary Perspective . Albany: SUNY Press, 2012. Mark, Joshua J. "Ancient Egypt." World History Encyclopedia . Surrey, UK: World History, 2009–present. link . ​ Massey, Gerald. Egyptian Wisdom and the Hebrew Genesis . New York: Cosimo, 2008. ​ Montgomery, David R. "Biblical-Type Floods Are Real, and They're Absolutely Enormous." Discover . May 9, 2020. link . Nelson, Paul, Robert C. Newman, and Howard J. Van Till. Three Views on Creation and Evolution . Counterpoints. Edited by J. P. Moreland, John Mark Reynolds, and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999. ​ Orgell, Hugh. "Israel's Disastrous Winter Howls Out with Fierce Wind." Daily News Bulletin . March 13, 1992. link . ​ Schoch, Robert M. Voyages of the Pyramid Builders: The True Origins of the Pyramids from Lost Egypt to Ancient America . New York: Penguin, 2005. ​ Trefil, James. "Evidence for a Flood." Smithsonian . April 1, 2000. link . ​ United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Havasupai Indian Agency, Arizona . Lawrence, KS: Haskell, 1928. ​ Walton, John H. The Lost World of Genesis One: Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate . Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Content warning : This article focuses on Christian discipleship. Although it discusses specific political themes from current events, the main point is that Christians should focus on matters of faith and mission instead of temporal politics. The core of the Christian faith is encapsulated in the Great Commission, which calls believers to proclaim the gospel to all nations, baptizing and making disciples of them. This mandate assumes renewed urgency and complexity within the contemporary context of Western Christianity. The socio-cultural and spiritual challenges of the modern era necessitate a recalibration of missional strategies, emphasizing that the fulfillment of this divine charge begins within the local contexts of believers. The Great Commission compels us to engage with the intricate and dynamic interplay of ethnic, cultural, and societal diversity in an increasingly globalized world. We must refocus our mission from a predominantly territorial perspective to prioritize the individuals and communities within these geographic spaces. Such an approach demands a paradigm shift, moving beyond traditional frameworks of evangelism to a model that centers on intentional disciple-making within immediate contexts. This renewed focus, however, must not undermine the broader imperative to reach all nations. Instead, it highlights the need to integrate both local and global dimensions of mission, promoting a holistic strategy that aligns with Christ's call to nurture discipleship as a transformative and enduring practice. As we strive to respond faithfully to the Great Commission, we must heed the words of Jesus, who charges us to form Christians committed to authentic and sustained discipleship. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Make the Commission Great Again It ​was an inauguration ceremony to remember. The streets were packed with visitors from around the world, and each local small business operated in the black for weeks. After years of poor leadership and divisive culture wars, the working class hoped for a fresh start and a brighter future. The newly appointed leader of a nascent populist movement addressed the estimated crowd of about 300,000 people, which fell short of some higher expectations by thousands—if not millions. The man was known for making bombastic remarks, and his accent was off-putting to many commentators. However, this did not stop him from giving a historic and riveting speech that launched a successful administration. ​ He was Simon Peter, a blue-collar Galilean known for his temper and speaking his mind. He was now the keynote speaker for the Way, as the Jesus movement was called at this time. This day was the inauguration of the Christian church. During this Jewish feast of Pentecost (Hebrew: Shavuot ; H7620 ), around May 25, AD 30, Peter began, "Fellow Jews and all of you who live in Jerusalem, let me explain this to you; listen carefully to what I say. These people are not drunk, as you suppose. It's only nine in the morning! No, this is what was spoken by the prophet Joel" ( Acts 2:14–16 ). Peter connected an Old Testament prophecy to the day's mysterious events in his speech. Jews from all over the Roman Empire heard the eleven apostles speaking in other languages they had never learned but were somehow testifying about Jesus' messiahship. Before the world's end, God promised to send visions to all demographics, whether male or female, slave or free, Jew or Gentile ( Joel 2:28–32 ; Gal. 3:28 ). Paleo-Christian Press Disciples of All Nations ​ Peter's sermon at Pentecost was about ten days after Jesus issued the Great Commission: "Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you" ( Matt. 28:19–20 ). While the apostles waited in an upper room of the Jerusalem temple, the Holy Spirit inspired them to carry out Jesus' command immediately. ​ These nations had the first baptized Christians: Parthia, Media, Elam, Mesopotamia, Judea, Cappadocia, Pontus, Roman Asia, Phrygia, Pamphylia, Egypt, Libyan Cyrene, Rome, Crete, and Arabia ( Acts 2:9–11 ). They roughly correspond to the modern countries of Iran, Iraq, Israel, Turkey, Egypt, Libya, Italy, Greece, and those on the Arabian Peninsula (i.e., Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen). The distance from east to west stretched for about 3,182 miles (5,122 kilometers; see here ) and from north to south for approximately 2,766 miles (4,452 kilometers; see here ). This area roughly matches the dimensions of the conterminous United States ( see here & here ). On the first day of the church, 3,000 Jewish pilgrims repented of their rejection of Jesus as their national Messiah and received baptism ( Acts 2:37–42 ). Once they all returned home, the gospel spread to a vast expanse that encompassed the continents of Africa, Asia, and Europe. The dispersion of Jews played a crucial role in the growth of Christianity across the Roman Empire and beyond. Even in his time, the apostle Paul wrote, "This is the gospel that you heard and that has been proclaimed to every creature under heaven" ( Col. 1:23 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Still Greatly Commissioned ​ We are Christians today because someone once baptized our ancestors and turned them into Jesus' disciples. This conversion happened at any time between the first and the twenty-first centuries. Yet, the Lord still greatly commissions us to make disciples of the nations and to baptize them in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Throughout church history, we have successfully taken the gospel to every country. However, those of us who are Christians in the West now find ourselves in a peculiar situation when we must evangelize the nations in which we live before committing ourselves to others. Yes, we need to "Make the Commission Great Again!" ​ You may ask, "Didn't Jesus tell us to baptize the nations?" Of course, but we must understand the actual meaning of the text. Matthew recorded the Great Commission and applied the Greek noun ethnē ( G1484 ), which we receive as "nations." We better interpret this word as "ethnicities," as the biblical jargon implies a group of non-Jewish people rather than a political unit. Jesus commissioned the church to evangelize the Greeks, not Greece; the Italians, not Italy; and the Ethiopians, not Ethiopia. Today, he calls us to bring the good news to the Chinese, not China; the Iraqis, not Iraq; the Colombians, not Colombia; the French, not France; and the Somalis, not Somalia. That said, more of us need to stay at home and evangelize the Americans instead of the United States, the Puerto Ricans instead of Puerto Rico, the Canadians instead of Canada, or the Britishers instead of Great Britain. We need to reach out to all the "leavers" who decided to "Chrexit" (i.e., exit from Christianity) and address their doubts. Nonetheless, Jesus did not commission us to make churchgoers but to baptize disciples to be the church . Courtesy of Boettcher+Trinklein TV Cost of Discipleship ​ Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945) wrote a book titled The Cost of Discipleship in which he distinguished costly grace from cheap grace. As a pastor whose resistance to Nazi Germany led to his execution at the end of World War II, Bonhoeffer knew something about the cost of discipleship. He wrote: ​ Cheap grace is preaching forgiveness without requiring repentance, baptism without church discipline, communion without confession, and absolution without personal confession. Cheap grace is grace without discipleship, grace without the cross, grace without Jesus Christ, living and incarnate. . . . [Discipleship] is costly because it costs a man his life, and it is grace because it gives a man the only true life. It is costly because it condemns sin, and grace because it justifies the sinner. Above all, it is costly because it cost God the life of his Son (pp. 44–45). ​ Jesus taught us: "And whoever does not carry their cross and follow me cannot be my disciple. Suppose one of you wants to build a tower. Won't you first sit down and estimate the cost to see if you have enough money to complete it?" ( Luke 14:27–28 ). Parenthetically, this lesson requires a mathematical answer. The word "disciple" translates the Greek mathētēs ( G3101 ), which derives from the verb manthanō ( G3129 , "to learn"). Yes, this is the same root from which our term "mathematics" comes from, as it defines the learning of factual knowledge. To be a disciple, a learner of Jesus, means to count the cost of following him. This decision must be deliberate for us. To put it in business terms, we must conduct a risk-cost-benefit analysis and choose the most profitable course of action. Jesus asks, "What good will it be for someone to gain the whole world, yet forfeit their soul? Or what can anyone give in exchange for their soul?" ( Matt. 16:26 ). Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion ​ Peter's sermon at Pentecost marked the inauguration of the Christian church. It was our ecclesiastical birthday, in which the streets of Jerusalem were packed with Jewish pilgrims from all over the Roman Empire. The people wanted change after decades of mediocre leadership from the Herodian dynasty and the Sanhedrin. Divisive culture wars pitted Hebraists against Hellenists, Pharisees against Sadducees, Jews against Gentiles, and Judeans against Galileans. However, most people were simply working-class folk hoping for a new beginning. Peter took charge as the keynote speaker of the Way, a populist movement based on this "good news" (Greek: euaggelion ; G2098 ) that changed the world ( see " Christian Case for Capitalism & Populism "). Ancient writers, such as Josephus, believed that over 2,700,000 Jews came to Jerusalem for the festival pilgrimages ( Wars of the Jews 6.9 ), while modern scholars give a more conservative estimate of about 300,000. Peter, known for speaking his mind and his Galilean accent, convinced 3,000 Jewish visitors to repent from their sins, receive baptism, and accept Jesus as their Messiah. Today, we read this robust discourse in light of the triumphant history of Christendom. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; we pray for you to prosper all those who proclaim the gospel of your kingdom throughout the world and strengthen us to fulfill your Great Commission, making disciples of all nations, baptizing them, and teaching them to obey all that you have commanded. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. ​ Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. The Cost of Discipleship . New York: Touchstone, 1995. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ Danker, Ryan N., ed. The Faith Once Delivered: A Wesleyan Witness to Christian Orthodoxy . Alexandria, VA: John Wesley Institute, 2022. ​​​Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. Josephus. The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition . Translated by William Whiston. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987.​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. Meade, David. Missions on Point: The Local Church at the Heart of Ecclesiology and Missiology . Newnan, GA: Send Forward, 2025. ​ Rosenbaum, Alan. "Jerusalem in Its Glory: Reconstructing the Sukkot Pilgrimage to the Second Temple." The Jerusalem Post . October 16, 2024. link . Sanders, E. P. Judaism: Practice and Belief 63 BCE–66 CE . Minneapolis: Fortress, 2016. ​ Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction While touring the district of Caesarea Philippi, Jesus asked his disciples about his identity. After the others fumbled through their responses, Simon son of Jonah correctly declared, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God" ( Matt. 16:16 ). Jesus was so impressed with his declaration that he called Simon "Peter" (Greek: Petros ; G4074 ) and elected him to be the "rock" (Greek: petra ; G4073 ) of his church, which will outlast the forces of wickedness ( Matt. 16:18 ). This is the first passage in the New Testament that hints at the theological study of the church, or ecclesiology . This article explores early church history as a template for church renewal and the restoration of "first-century faith." Following Peter's confession, the early church laid its foundation in recognizing Jesus as the Messiah, the Son of the living God. This pivotal moment not only established Peter as a leader among the disciples but also laid the groundwork for the formation and growth of the Christian community. As the church spread throughout the Roman Empire in the following centuries, it encountered numerous challenges, including persecution, doctrinal controversies, and cultural opposition. However, the steadfast commitment of early Christians to the teachings of Jesus and the principles of the gospel enabled the church to endure and thrive in the face of adversity. By studying the faith and practices of these early believers, Christians today gain valuable insights into navigating the complexities of the modern world while remaining faithful to the timeless truths of the Christian faith. Through a renewed focus on the foundational principles of discipleship, community, and mission, today's church can find inspiration and guidance in the rich legacy of its early beginnings. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Why the First Century? ​ Since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the mid-twentieth century, biblical scholars and Christian theologians have significantly reexamined nearly all their prior assumptions. This event also coincided with the end of World War II, after the public realized that Nazi Germany killed approximately six-million Jews throughout Europe. The finding of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Holocaust moved scholars and theologians to jettison the layers of research that caused them to overlook much of the first-century contexts of Jesus and the gospel accounts ( see " Auschwitz & Biblical Studies "). For nearly all Western Christians—Roman Catholics and Protestants alike—the doctrine of supersessionism was the main casualty of this new outlook. ​ Supersessionism is the notion that the church supersedes the role of ethnic Israel as God's chosen people ( see " Israel: Election & Identity "). However, many Christians reconsidered this doctrine out of "Holocaust guilt," their consciences pricked by centuries of antisemitism that culminated in the industrial murder of Jews. Inherent in this guilt was the realization that Jesus and his original disciples were Jewish. Suddenly, he was no longer a mighty European king wearing a gold crown and purple robes but a humble Jewish tradesman who lived among the working class. Christians now sought to find the "historical Jesus" in the pages of the New Testament. They even started dialogues with Jewish scholars and rabbis to learn the perspectives they missed in nearly two thousand years of prejudice. A critical facet that many Christians neglected was the presence of first-century customs and ideas that still influence Judaism today. ​ To achieve a genuine ecclesiology, Christians must evaluate the first century and recognize that Jesus was a Jewish man who lived within the Roman Empire. Undoubtedly, the world religion known as "Christianity" evolved in the following centuries across the globe, taking different forms in its expansive growth. Richard C. Halverson (1916–1995), the sixtieth chaplain to the United States Senate, observed: In the beginning, the church was a fellowship of men and women centering on the living Christ. They had a personal and vital relationship with the Lord, and it transformed their lives and the world around them. Then the church moved to Greece, where it became a philosophy. Then, it moved to Rome, where it became an institution. Next, it moved to Europe, where it became a culture. Finally, it moved to America, where it has become an enterprise (Dunnam, pp. 31–32; Larson, p. 50). Simply put, the early disciples of Jesus were Jews and Gentiles who met together in solidarity because they encountered God himself. Each time the Christian faith moved to a different region, it assimilated a new local flavor. While that may seem like a good thing at first, the teaching of Jesus and his apostles became too convoluted or vague with the novel additions. In the context of Halverson's remark, the church also assumed a different identity each time it traversed various lands. Considering that Jesus said, "My yoke is easy to bear, and my burden is light" ( Matt. 11:30 ), this is not a problem to ignore. ​ God sent his Son, Jesus, to the Roman province of Judea in the first century for a specific purpose. Perhaps he waited until Israel, the nation he established through a covenant of circumcision, could propel the rule of law among all humankind. In the Hebrew calendar, Jesus' birth probably occurred between 3757 and 3762. Remember that the "first century" is a later estimate to mark the year of his nativity on the Gregorian calendar. For Jews, their years are theologically reckoned from the world's creation in Genesis. Jesus entered the world at the proper time in Jewish history when the Romans were about to destroy their temple and disperse the Jews worldwide. The prophet Daniel warned about this when he predicted Israel's destruction by a future empire that would be more powerful than the others that ruled it: Babylon, Persia, and Greece ( Dan. 2 , 7 , 8 ). He also predicted the desecration of the temple ( Dan. 9:27 ; Matt. 24:15 ), which took place in AD 70 when the Roman general Titus (AD 39–81) sacked and looted it. To grasp the influence of the first century in world history, one only has to see how contemporary Jews approach the Western Wall, where they still mourn the temple's destruction even some two thousand years later. In Rome, the Arch of Titus also commemorates the sacking of the temple in modern-day times. Jesus warned the leaders of Israel that the temple was in its final days, as evident in his discourse at the Mount of Olives ( Matt. 24:1–25:46 ; Mark 13:1–37 ; Luke 21:5–36 ). He also told how the Gentiles would militarily occupy the city of Jerusalem until God decided its outcome ( Luke 21:24 ). This only happened in 1948 when the United Nations granted the State of Israel its sovereignty, just as the world learned about the Dead Sea Scrolls and the aftermath of the Holocaust. ​ The temple's importance lay in its direct, visible presence of God (Hebrew: Shechinah ; H7931 ). The Jewish people had the privilege of having God within their borders, unlike the other nations. However, the arrival of Jesus represented a change in God's continued presence. He no longer confined himself to a physical location or a specific national religion but revealed his will to all humankind ( John 4:21–24 ). So, when the Jews came to other parts of the Roman Empire, they brought their knowledge of the divine. Jesus warned the Jewish leaders about the temple's imminent ruin. He taught that God wanted all people to worship him in spirit and truth, regardless of their location ( John 4:24 ). The temple was being dismantled, and Jesus would now represent the Shechinah of God. For this reason, Jesus promised, "For where two or three gather in my name, there am I with them" ( Matt. 18:20 ). This teaching was a paraphrase of the typical Jewish expression, "When two sit together, and there are words of Torah spoken between them, the Divine Presence [ Shechinah ] rests with them" ( Pirkei Avot 3:3 ). When the Judeo-Roman historian Josephus (AD 37–100) wrote about the temple's fall in AD 70, he testified that a brilliant light shined around the altar in the Holy of Holies for about thirty minutes before disappearing. Next, he said the brass temple gate—so heavy that it required twenty men to move it—opened on its own around midnight. Josephus credited this deed to God, indicating that his Shechinah presence forsook the Jews so the Romans could enter the temple and raze it. Finally, he wrote that a booming voice filled the inner court, announcing, "We are leaving this place" ( Wars of the Jews 6.5 ). God removed his presence from the temple, marking the end of the age. ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com A Galilean Fellowship ​ The Holy Spirit inaugurated the church on Pentecost when each apostle received various spiritual gifts and bore witness to their faith in Christ. Simon Peter delivered a powerful sermon to many Jews from the Mediterranean and the Near East. As a result, the earliest disciples of Jesus met in fellowship and shared their belongings in common ( Acts 2 ). Although this pattern was short-lived, it set a precedent for shared meals and giving that the church would continue for a long time into the future. The disciples started preaching to their fellow Jews immediately after Pentecost, fifty days after Jesus' resurrection ( Acts 1–2 ). They initially described their christocentric movement as "the Way" ( Acts 9:2 , 18:25–26 , 19:9 , 23 , 22:4 ), which was probably derived from Jesus' assertion, "I am the way and the truth and the life" ( John 14:6 ). Because no mortal could ever speak infallibly. Neither could they guarantee eternal life; the disciples naturally identified themselves as "the Way" toward the truth and life of Jesus. In other words, salvation in Christ is a continuous journey toward God's kingdom. ​ The breaking of bread was the most unifying practice in the first-century church. Jesus instructed his followers to remember his death and resurrection in the partaking of bread and wine, which signified his body and blood ( Luke 22:19 ; 1 Cor. 11:24 ). The disciples whom Christ met on the road to Emmaus only recognized him once he broke bread for a shared meal; not when they were walking with him ( Luke 24:13–35 ). However, Jesus did not drink wine near Emmaus but only ate bread. He vowed during his final supper before death that he would never again drink wine until God's kingdom arrived ( Mark 14:25 ). Likewise, he taught his disciples about this kingdom in a series of parables, in which marriage banquets were the central theme ( Matt. 22:1–14 , 24:42–51 , 25:1–13 ; Mark 13:34–37 ; Luke 12:35–48 , 14:7–24 ). The marriage dinner was a symbolic sign of God's kingdom, and the love feasts the early church shared also represented its joy in anticipation of a final victory with Christ. The wedding meal at Cana, where Jesus turned water into wine ( John 2:1–12 ), also foreshadowed the church's meeting with him on the last day. So when the apostle Paul noticed how the wealthier members used the love feasts to exploit the poorer ones, he rebuked them harshly for abusing God's image ( 1 Cor. 11:17–22 ). By this time, the Way had moved from its center in Jerusalem to all of Galilee, Judea, Phoenicia, and Samaria ( Acts 9:31 , 15:3 ). ​ The church as a fellowship was not without its leaders. When the Jewish members of the Way, under the direction of Simon Peter, contested the Gentiles who sided with Paul, they went to Jerusalem to meet with James. At the council that met around AD 50, James oversaw the debate between the two apostles and presented his resolution based on the guidelines for foreigners living in Israel from the Law of Moses ( Acts 15 ; cf. Lev. 17–18 ). James headed the Council of Jerusalem as a bishop (Greek: episkopos ; G1985 , "overseer"). As Jesus' brother, he held considerable authority, even among the twelve apostles ( Gal. 1:18–19 ), primarily because he remained in Israel's holiest city to lead the church there. However, most of the bishops in the first century were local, looking over a network of home gatherings ( Acts 20:28 ). Whenever the New Testament writers used the word "church" (Greek: ekklēsia ; G1577 ; "called out"), they included all of the Christians who lived in a given city. For this reason, Paul addressed his letters to the "church at Corinth," the "church at Ephesus," the "church at Colossae," and so on. The ekklēsia , in this context, was simply a gathering of believers in Christ. Moreover, the apostles knew that for the overall church to survive, they needed to appoint elders in each local congregation who would preserve the Way for future generations ( Acts 14:23 ; Titus 1:5 ). The deacon (Greek: diakonos , G1249 ; "server") helped the bishops and elders with the everyday concerns of individual believers ( 1 Tim. 3:8–13 ). Thus, the first-century church established a threefold pattern: bishop, elder, and deacon. However, these were functions rather than hierarchical positions. Jesus expressly forbids the apostles from seeking rank in God's kingdom ( Matt. 20:26 ; Mark 10:43 ), and even Paul routinely downplayed his apostolic role in finding churches ( 1 Cor. 9 ). He also described a fivefold ministry of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers ( Eph. 4:11 ). ​ At the close of the first century, John addressed the seven churches of Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea ( Rev. 1:11 ). The number seven in Judaism represents completion, fulfillment, and perfection, as God created the world in six days and rested on the seventh. Therefore, the seven churches in Revelation illustrated the common church for all time and space ( see " A Saga of Seven Churches "). Jesus told each of his disciples to stay the course and repent as soon as they fell into error. He was the cornerstone upon which the prophets and the apostles—the foundation and the pillars—built the church of God on the "rock" of Peter's confession ( Eph. 2:19–21 ; Gal. 2:9 ; cf. Matt. 16:18 ). In other words, Christ laid out the template for his people to follow well into the future. Mateus Campos Felipe A Greco-Roman Philosophy & Institution ​ Formulating the Trinity was the hallmark of the church's movement into Greece and Rome. Between the second and eighth centuries, the five "apostolic" churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria, and Constantinople convened at six ecumenical councils to establish a consensus on what all Christians should believe about the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. All these cities originated within the Roman Empire until the eastern side evolved into the Byzantine Empire around 330. The metropolitan bishop—a hierarchical post that developed in the second century—governed the church in conjunction with each of the five cities, often meeting to ensure institutional orthodoxy. The Greek-speaking bishops were more concerned with the intricacy of language, assuming they knew better than their Latin-speaking peers simply because the New Testament authors used Greek. Conversely, the Latin bishops wanted to govern the church through jurisprudence, with close ties between the bishop of Rome and the emperor following the Edict of Milan in 313. So when the Greek and Latin bishops met at the councils of Nicaea, Chalcedon, Ephesus, and Constantinople, their attempts to work together were tenuous at best. The Latins sought quick resolutions to justify the increasing power of Rome's bishop, whereas the Greeks were not averse to tedious deliberation over technical language. In the doctrine of the Trinity, for example, the pentarchy of churches took nearly two hundred years to agree on the term homoousios ( G3674 , G3776 , "of one essence") to explain the bond of the Father and the Son ( see " Trinity: Jewish & Gentile Views "). ​ However, this uniformity of doctrine failed to bring the church together but divided it into further schisms. Rome underscored its primacy, exploiting Jesus' identification of Simon Peter as the "rock" of his church ( Matt. 16:18 ) over its discernment of Scripture. The Greek-speaking bishops of Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople also had ties to an emperor. However, they typically kept their churches free from the rule of an imperial bishop. The laypeople were the main casualty of all this Greek philosophizing and Roman legalizing. The bishops too readily identified the church with their position, neglecting the input of ordinary Christians. They added rules about baptism and catechesis that the apostles never taught. For example, the newcomer had to finish two years of instruction to receive baptism. In the first-century church, the apostles baptized initiates as soon as possible ( Acts 2:41 , 8:36–38 , 9:18 , 16:15 , 33 ). This statement by Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110) perfectly summarizes the untenable connection between a hierarchical bishop and the definition of church: Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude [of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic church. It is not lawful without the bishop either to baptize or to celebrate a love-feast; but whatsoever he shall approve of, that is also pleasing to God, so that everything that is done may be secure and valid ( Smyrnaeans 8 ). The implicit message is that the bishops succeeded the apostles of Jesus as the legitimate caretakers of his church. Anyone who agreed with the bishops of Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria, or Constantinople was deemed ecumenical or "inhabiting" the common worldwide church (Greek: oikoumenē ; G3625 ). Those beyond their control were anathema ( G331 , "given over" to the devil; cf. 1 Cor. 5:5 )—pending destruction at the world's end. Torbjörn Jörgensen A European Culture ​ The Great Schism of 1054 marked the church's further expansion into Europe, as the Greek and Latin bishops mutually excommunicated each other. The first branch chose the name Orthodox, while the second preferred Catholic . They divided Europe nearly in half, with the Latins occupying the West and the Byzantines controlling the East. Typically, each side kept to itself, although regions such as the Balkan Peninsula often proved to be tinderboxes of conflict due to their mutual occupation. The primary difference between the modern ethnicities of Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs lies in their former state religions, which were influenced by past alliances with the Ottomans, Romans, or Byzantines, respectively. Because of the Ottoman—and, by extension, Islamic—threat against the Byzantines, Rome often enjoyed the unchecked rule of the continent until the Greek missionaries Cyril (c. 827–869) and Methodius (c. 815–884) converted the Slavs. From that point forward, the Byzantines would no longer be the critical Orthodox menace but the rugged and ominous Russians—the "third Rome." ​ During the Middle Ages, the Catholic and Orthodox churches infiltrated every European cultural area. They created the first universities, and the Bishop of Rome—or "Pope," as the Catholics now described him—served as the kingmaker throughout the West. Not to be outdone, the Muscovite bishops grew closer to the Russian emperor, the new "Caesar" (Russian: Czar ). In effect, the typical Christian church had become a series of national and ethnic churches, with the primary focus on internal politics rather than the teachings of Jesus. Even with the Reformation in the sixteenth century, when thousands of Western Christians separated from the Pope's authority, these "Protestants" still organized their churches along national and cultural boundaries. Martin Luther (1483–1546) was the Reformer for the Germans, John Calvin (1509–1564) for the Swiss, Johannes Polyander (1568–1646) for the Dutch, John Knox (1514–1572) for the Scots, and Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) for the English. However, the final result of the Reformation was not the continuation of a "first-century faith" but the worst violence and warfare that was without parallel in Europe until the twentieth century's World Wars. Massive population shifts and refugee crises occurred in nearly two hundred years of fighting over religion. These conflicts included the Peasants' War (1524–1525), the Schmalkaldic Wars (1546–1547), the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), the French Wars of Religion (1562–1629), the Dutch Revolt (1572–1609), the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), and the English Civil War (1642–1651). There were more causes of this violence than just religion, but the participation of the clergy and theologians in these campaigns shows precisely how compromised the church had become. Jesus taught his disciples, "Likewise, every good tree bears good fruit, but a bad tree bears bad fruit. . . . Thus, by their fruit you will recognize them" ( Matt. 7:17 , 20 ). The inculturation of the Church led to warfare and a gradual march toward secularization. Courtesy of the Center for Healthy Churches An American Enterprise ​ The success theology many Christians know as the "prosperity gospel" is unique to the United States, except for the countries that learned it from American missionaries. However, the church as an enterprise began with the establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, when Puritans and other Protestant minorities fled from Britain to avoid religious tensions. While the citizens of continental Europe suffered through two centuries of nearly endless war, many Britons absconded to their overseas colonies to avoid religious oppression. From the outset, the Puritans were a sect in the Church of England that blended Calvinist and Anabaptist ideas. They did not think the Articles of Religion were a fair treatment of their ecclesiological concerns, especially Article 38, which dismissed their call to abolish private property in favor of a collaborative economy. They believed all Christians should emulate the apostles, who shared everything in common ( Acts 2:44–45 ). When Thomas Cranmer, writer of the Articles , upheld the land gentry's objections, they scorned the Puritans well into the next century. As a result, approximately 15,000 Puritans migrated to America between 1620 and 1642, where they could establish their society. The vast majority of families were middle-class, thriving in Britain. Their goal in founding Massachusetts was expressly religious, hoping to create a "city on top of a hill," alluding to Jesus' call for the church to be an obvious example of righteousness ( Matt. 5:14 ). ​ The prosperity gospel begins and ends with the "Christian nation myth," the misuse of Christianity as the basis of American national religion. The Puritans, who were predominantly middle-class, prided themselves on their work ethic, which was rooted in Calvinist theology. They read Paul's charge to the Colossians to work for God, rather than seeking recognition from their supervisor. The next verse presents the guarantee of reward and inheritance ( Col. 3:23–24 ). Theologians call this concept the "Protestant work ethic," implying that God predestined some people to be rich and others to be poor. The entire framework of the American national religion is that God elected the United States as his "city on a hill" and led out his new people from the tyranny and blasphemy of war-torn Europe—a new exodus for a new Israel. This ideology was an offshoot of the doctrine of supersessionism , or the church superseding the Jews as God's elect. Together, the Christian nation myth and the Protestant work ethic became a "manifest destiny" that God willed the United States to span the choicest regions of North America. This convenient narrative justified everything from the chattel slavery of Africans, the genocide of Native Americans, the abuse of laborers, and racial discrimination. John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), who was a Baptist and one of the wealthiest men in the world, typified the church as an American enterprise when he said: I believe the power to make money is a gift from God . . . to be developed and used to the best of our ability for the good of humankind. . . . I believe it is my duty to make money and still more money and to use the money I make for the good of my fellow man according to the dictates of my conscience. Courtesy of Faith Church, NY A Renewal of Fellowship ​ In the liturgical text of Psalms, King David wrote about praising, blessing, and thanking God in the "great congregation" ( Pss. 22:25 , 26:12 , 35:18 , 68:26 ). He also testified about God's saving help, faithfulness, salvation, and steadfast love ( Ps. 40:10 ), as well as his "good news of righteousness" ( Ps. 40:9 ). In the Septuagint, a Greek interpretation of the Old Testament, ekklēsia is the same word that English-language translators render as "church." For David, this was the great congregation of Israel over which he ruled. Interestingly, Paul and other New Testament writers chose the term ekklēsia over sunagōgē ( G4864 , "synagogue") because it more accurately linked the Way to an expanded definition of Israel than a physical building. Likewise, the church praises and thanks God for his faithfulness, salvation, steadfast love, and the glad news of deliverance—the gospel—in the name of Christ Jesus. The church is the immutable fellowship of Jesus' disciples and the eschatological wedding feast of God's kingdom. Therefore, Christ's mission through his church is to honor God and to inaugurate His eternal sabbath. Thus, Christians in the real world should pursue the Holy Spirit even in their most difficult moments, balancing correct teaching with genuine concern for all human beings. Therefore, "the law of prayer is the law of belief" (Latin: lex orandi, lex credendi ), meaning the church only fulfills God's intent when it connects with him regularly. This connection happens in common prayer by those who strive for truth in the Holy Spirit ( John 14:15–21 ), in the sacraments of baptism and communion, especially in the forgiveness of sins ( Acts 5:31 ), and the care of the poor ( Matt. 25:31–46 ). ​ The true definition of church is neither a hierarchy nor a physical building, but the temple of Jesus' body where God reveals his direct presence ( John 2:21 ). His disciples are much smaller temples of the Holy Spirit, forming a collective whole ( 1 Cor. 6:19 ). On the last day, Christ will marry his church in God's heavenly city, a new Jerusalem from which he will never remove his presence ( Rev. 21:2 , 9 ). In the meantime, Christians must stay alert for Jesus, their bridegroom ( Matt. 25:1–13 ). To do this, they must learn to be faithful disciples, not merely proselytes to the Christian religion. The Greek mathētēs ( G3101 ; "disciple"), which arises from the same root as the word "mathematics," refers to someone who counts the cost and then makes a personal commitment ( Luke 14:28 ). To be a citizen of God's kingdom, one must adopt the narrative of Jesus' life and teaching as their individual story. Therefore, the goal of renewal must bring the true church worth getting up for. Jesus commissioned this ekklēsia to baptize and to create disciples, to immerse them in God's vast history of deliverance and healing ( Matt. 28:19–20 ). The church that deserves awakening is not a good idea, an organization, a culture, or a business, but a fellowship of God's people living under the Holy Spirit's counsel ( see " Paleo-Orthodoxy & Succession "). ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; look favorably on your whole church, that wonderful and sacred mystery; by the effectual working of your providence, carry out in tranquility the plan of salvation; let the whole world see and know that things which were cast down are being raised, and things which had grown old are being made new and that all things are being brought to their perfection by him through whom all things were created, your Son, Jesus the Messiah our Lord; who lives and reigns with you, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ "Articles of Religion." Church of England. link . Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006. ​ Bednarowski, Mary Ferrell, ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 7: Twentieth-Century Global Christianity . Edited by Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008. Beker, J. Christiaan. Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought . Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980. Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ Bornstein, Daniel E., ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 4: Medieval Christianity . Edited by Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2009.​ Boyer, Paul S., Clifford E. Clark Jr., Sandra McNair Hawley, Joseph F. Kett, Andrew Rieser, Neal Salisbury, Harvard Sitkoff, and Nancy Woloch. The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People, Volume 1: To 1877 . 6th ed. Boston: Wadsworth, 2010. Burrus, Virginia, ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 2: Late Ancient Christianity . Edited by Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005. Cleenewerck, Laurent. His Broken Body: Understanding and Healing the Schism Between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches . Washington, DC: Euclid University Press, 2009. Danker, Ryan N., ed. The Faith Once Delivered: A Wesleyan Witness to Christian Orthodoxy . Alexandria, VA: John Wesley Institute, 2022. ​ Davis, E. Philip. The Crisis and the Kingdom: Economics, Scripture, and the Global Financial Crisis . Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2012. ​ Dunn, James D. G. Christianity in the Making, Vol. 1: Jesus Remembered . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. ​ ⸻. Christianity in the Making, Vol. 2: Beginning from Jerusalem . 2009. ​ ⸻. Christianity in the Making, Vol. 3: Neither Jew nor Greek: A Contested Identity . 2015. ​ Dunn, James D. G., and John William Rogerson, eds. Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. Dunnam, Maxie D. Cultivating a Thoughtful Faith . Edited by Stephen G. W. Moore. Nashville, Abingdon, 2005. Edwards, Judson. Acts Annual Bible Study: Living with Passionate Faith . Macon, GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2008. Eusebius. Ecclesiastical History: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition . Translated by C. F. Cruse. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998. ​ Friedman, Jonathan C., ed. The Routledge History of the Holocaust . Routledge Histories. New York: Routledge, 2012. Grillmeier, Aloys. Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Council of Chalcedon (451) to Gregory the Great (590—604) . Vol. 2. Translated by Pauline Allen and John Cawte. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2011. ​ Horsley, Richard A, ed. People's History of Christianity, Vol. 1: Christian Origins . Edited by Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005. ​ Ignatius. "The Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnæans Shorter and Longer Versions." In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 1: The Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus . Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1885. Josephus. The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition . Translated by William Whiston. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987.​ ​ Knight, Jonathan. Christian Origins . New York: T&T Clark, 2008. ​ Kreider, Alan, ed. The Origins of Christendom in the West . Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2001. ​ Krueger, Derek, ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 3: Byzantine Christianity . Edited by Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2010. Larson, Bruce.  Wind and Fire: Living Out the Book of Acts . Waco, TX: Word, 1984. ​ Lawler, Jennifer. Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire . Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004. Leeman, Jonathan, Christopher J. H. Wright, John R. Franke, and Peter J. Leithart. Four Views on the Church's Mission . Counterpoints. Edited by Jason S. Sexton and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017. ​ Matheson, Peter, ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 5: Reformation Christianity . Edited by Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2007. ​ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. ⸻. The Reformation: A History . New York: Penguin, 2003. Marshall, I. Howard. The Acts of the Apostles: An Introduction and Commentary . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980. ​ Moore, Susan Hardman. Pilgrims: New World Settlers and the Call of Home . London: Yale University Press, 2007. Nexon, Daniel H. The Struggle for Power in Early Modern Europe: Religious Conflict, Dynastic Empires, and International Change . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009. Nothaft, C. Philipp E. Medieval Latin Christian Texts on the Jewish Calendar: A Study with Five Editions and Translations . Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2014. Papandrea, James L. The Wedding of the Lamb: A Historical Approach to the Book of Revelation . Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2011. ​ Porterfield, Amanda, ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 5: Modern Christianity to 1900 . Edited by Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006.​ Spangler, Ann, and Lois Tverberg. Sitting at the Feet of Rabbi Jesus: How the Jewishness of Jesus Can Transform Your Faith . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2018. ​ Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020.​ Toon, Peter, L. Roy Taylor, Paige Patterson, and Sam E. Waldron. Who Runs the Church? Four Views on Church Government . Counterpoints. Edited by Steven B. Cowan and Paul E. Engle. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004. Vickers, Jason E. Minding the Good Ground: A Theology for Church Renewal . Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2011. Wauzzinski, Robert A. Between God and Gold: Protestant Evangelicalism and the Industrial Revolution, 1820–1914 . Vancouver: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1993. ​ Zakai, Avihu. Exile and Kingdom: History and Apocalypse in the Puritan Migration to America . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Ecclesiology is the theological study of the church's identity and structure. The word derives from the Greek ekklēsia ( G1577 , "called out"), which better translates as "assembly" or "congregation." Over time, as Christianity evolved into a global religion, theologians associated the concept of the  church  with a hierarchical structure of bishops, priests, and deacons, with the people as its constituents. Ignatius of Antioch (c. AD 35–107) opined, "Wherever the bishop appears, there let the people be; as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic church" ( Smyrnaeans 8 ). Simply put, individuals are only part of the church if they subject themselves to a bishop when worshiping God. Ignatius also implied that Christ remains with the bishop, and the people must approach him via this intercessor. However, Luke of Antioch used the word "church" to describe the people of the early Jesus movement when he wrote the Acts of the Apostles. For example, his narrative about the Council of Jerusalem details how Paul and Barnabas encountered the church when they met with elders and other apostles ( Acts 15:3–5 ). In this case, the entire congregation, comprising both laity and leadership, formed the church. Alfi Old Testament Church ​ To identify the church, we must research its origins. Because the writers of the Septuagint (the Old Testament in ancient Greek) used the word  ekklēsia  to refer to Israel, the church predates the incarnation of Jesus. The traditional seventy (Latin: septuaginta ) Jewish translators believed ekklēsia was the most accurate rendering of qahal ( H6950 , H6951 ). Why does this matter? Because the qahal was the holiest gathering of Israelites, rather than a local synagogue. The church began with the exodus of the Israelites from their Egyptian taskmasters. The narrative purpose of the Hebrew scriptures was to establish Israel as the nation that would restore God's created order. From the time Abraham left Ur for Canaan, God set aside his descendants through Sarah, according to his sovereign will. Later, Abraham's grandson Jacob successfully grappled with God and received a new name: Israel ( H3478 )—one who wrestles with God. Thus, the entire nation derived from the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob became Israel . Implied in this label is the overall failure of humankind to seek God, a problem of which both King David and Paul lamented: "As it is written, 'There is no one righteous, not even one'" ( Rom. 3:10 ; cf. Ps. 14:3 , 53:3 ). Israel was supposed to be different—a group of human beings after God's heart. The arrival of Jesus as God incarnate in the world expanded Israel from a nation limited to Judea to one available for everyone. Just as the original Israelites fled the exploitative rule of an Egyptian pharaoh, the church runs from the bondage of sin. The church's origin lies in the exodus, from which it departs from the world toward a heavenly province flowing with milk and honey. Most importantly, the great qahal of Israel gathered at Mount Horeb after God told Moses: "Assemble the people before me to hear my words so that they may learn to revere me as long as they live in the land and may teach them to their children" ( Deut. 4:10 ). It was at Horeb where God revealed the Ten Commandments ( Deut. 4:13 ). So, the Hebrew word qahal only referred to the great congregation of Israel whenever it gathered to worship or meet God. Boredjohnn New Testament Church Before his arrest, Jesus promised his disciples that he would send another Advocate (Greek: Paraklētos ; G3875 ) to them ( John 14:16 ). Implicit in this vow is Jesus' claim to be an advocate for the church before God the Father and the ability to dispatch the Spirit. However, the Son does not send the Holy Spirit according to his designs, but from the Father ( John 14:26 ,  15:26 ). Jesus cannot send the Spirit by himself because doing so would result in two different wills. Instead, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are one God in the Trinity of persons; the first is the source of purpose for the other two ( see " Trinity: Jewish & Gentile Views "). Therefore, the Son sends out (Greek: ekporeuomai ; G1607 ) the Spirit from the Father, not himself ( see " Definition of Chalcedon "). The church receives counsel and advocacy from the Son and the Holy Spirit according to the Father's will, which they never violate. In his second epistle, Peter wrote that the church participates in the divine nature by communing with God ( 2 Pet. 1:4 ). The church is united with God because of the Son, who guides it by sending the Spirit from the Father in his stead. It can never be one with the divine nature in composition, only by reciprocating faith, hope, and steadfast love ( 1 Cor. 13:13 ). The Holy Spirit tells the church exactly how to walk by faith and not by sight, how to persist in hope against all odds, and how to love completely. He also advocates for the church when we fail. Although God made us in his image, we are still inferior and subordinate to him. In this case, "image" is synonymous with "copy" or "shadow." Humankind is not inherently divine, but it requires a hybrid intercessor, such as Jesus, to intercede on its behalf. God created it to be inferior to his substance, which is not a result of the fall or original sin. Human beings, like all creatures, were once "good" by nature ( Gen. 1:31 ). The image of God was not lost after Adam and Eve disobeyed, but now finds its perfection in Jesus. Therefore, the matter is not evil in a Platonic sense. The very incarnation of God, the Son in human flesh, implies that human nature is "good." If the doctrine of original sin were true, Jesus would not have entered human flesh and into an evil nature by default. We sin because we abuse the free will that God gave us ( Rom. 1:30 ; see " God's Will & Our Free Choices "). On the other hand, the church represents humanity restored. While most people choose to sin against God, the church is a community that continually seeks his guidance. It forgoes free will to honor the purpose of God, a goal realized by the intercession of Jesus and the comfort of the Spirit. When Paul lamented that no human being seeks God ( Rom. 3:11 ), he was referring to sinners outside the church. He also understood how free will enables individuals to join the church and to seek God's counsel by faith, not just to disobey him. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Jesus & the Church ​ Understanding the correct identity of Jesus in relation to the church is essential. Whereas the church is a product of the material world, Jesus is eternal. As God incarnate, he bridged the spiritual essence of God with the material creation of which humankind is part. Even if human beings did not fall into evil, God the Father still would have sent his only-begotten Son, Jesus, into the world to intercede on its behalf. The intercessory role of God the Son is not a response to sin but one that allows humankind to commune with the divine essence without being intrinsically part of it. Instead, God made human beings in his image (Latin: imago Dei ); that is, a copy of his substance ( see " Humankind & Ancestral Sin "). Jesus is God's essence and the material vessel that typifies it. His purpose is to intercede on behalf of the church, the people God trusts to accomplish his goals, and to communicate with him. Any Christology that relegates Jesus to a mere creature lower than a timeless expression of God also concludes that the church is a pointless endeavor. Without the divine Logos ( G3056 )—Jesus as our intercessor—the church would be nothing more than a group promoting their standards of truth and righteousness. The church is holy because God sets it apart, not because we Christians attain holiness on our own merits. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion ​ The church is simply the people of God to a world that has abandoned him. Jesus is the high priest; therefore, no other priest is required. The author of the letter to the Hebrews carefully delineated who Jesus is and is not—Jesus is not an angel ( Heb. 2:5–9 ) or a priest who makes temporal sacrifices to cover human wrongdoing. Instead, Jesus is God incarnate, who sacrificed himself once as the only high priest capable of doing so ( Heb. 4:14 ). He taught the church not to call anyone rabbi, instructor, or father because the Lord is the only one who instructs and fathers it correctly and honestly ( Matt. 23:9 ). Paul called the church the "body of Christ" because it accomplishes his purpose in the world ( 1 Cor. 12:27 ). However, the church needs Christ to intercede between humankind and God, so it is not one with him in any mystical sense. The church partakes of the divine nature by grace through faith, never by its works ( Eph. 2:8–9 ). Likewise, no ecclesiastical hierarchy represents the church to God, nor does God represent the church to itself. They relate through Jesus alone. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; we pray for your holy Christian church. Fill it with all truth, in all reality, with all peace. Where it is corrupt, purify it; where it is in error, direct it; where in anything it is amiss, reform it; where it is correct, strengthen it; where it is in want, provide for it; where it is in discord, reunite it; where it is in decline, renew it; for the sake of Jesus the Messiah, your Son our Savior. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ Bird, Michael F. Evangelical Theology: A Biblical and Systematic Introduction . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2020. Chan, Simon. Liturgical Theology: Church as Worshiping Community . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1996. ​ Cleenewerck, Laurent. His Broken Body: Understanding and Healing the Schism Between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches . Washington, DC: Euclid University Press, 2007. ​ Danker, Ryan N., ed. The Faith Once Delivered: A Wesleyan Witness to Christian Orthodoxy . Alexandria, VA: John Wesley Institute, 2022. Ignatius. "The Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnæans Shorter and Longer Versions." In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 1: The Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus . Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1885. ​ Kärkkäinen, ​Veli-Matti. An Introduction to Ecclesiology: Ecumenical, Historical and Global Perspectives . Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009. Leeman, Jonathan, Christopher J. H. Wright, John R. Franke, and Peter J. Leithart. Four Views on the Church's Mission . Counterpoints. Edited by Jason S. Sexton and Stanley N. Gundry. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017. ​ Lewis, C. S. Mere Christianity . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2015. ​ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years . New York: Penguin, 2011. Toon, Peter, L. Roy Taylor, Paige Patterson, and Sam E. Waldron. Who Runs the Church? Four Views on Church Government . Counterpoints. Edited by Steven B. Cowan and Paul E. Engle. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004. ​ Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019.

Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Introduction Christology is the theological study of Jesus' identity as Christ or Messiah . Both of these words mean "anointed one" in Greek ( G5547 ; Christos ) and Hebrew ( H4899 ; Mashiach ), respectively. The New Testament authors gave Jesus many titles to emphasize the facets of his messianic identity. Some readers come away from the texts with a low Christology , meaning they view Jesus as a prominent Jewish rabbi or teacher but not as God incarnate. However, throughout history, the church has always taught a high Christology , meaning that Jesus is an essential person of the Trinity. Granted, Jesus never said "I am God" in a way a contemporary person would understand. No, he was much more specific: "Very truly I tell you, before Abraham was born, I Am!" ( John 8:58 ). Jesus claimed to be Yahweh ( H3068 ), the one true God of Israel and all of the nations. Let us explore the meanings of Jesus' titles. ​ Paleo-Christian Press Alpha & Omega ​ In Revelation, Jesus calls himself the "Alpha and Omega" three times: 1) "I am the Alpha and the Omega, who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty" ( Rev. 1:8 ), 2) "It is done. I am the Alpha and the Omega, the Beginning and the End. To the thirsty I will give water without cost from the spring of the water of life" ( Rev. 21:6 ), and 3) "I am the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End" ( Rev. 22:13 ). ​ The title "Alpha and Omega" refers to the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. If Jesus spoke English to us today, he would tell us that he is the "Everything from A to Z." Philosophers refer to this concept as teleology , the study of God's design purpose for creation. Jesus is the metaphysical reason for everything in the universe.​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Great High Priest ​ The author of Hebrews wrote, "Therefore, since we have a great high priest who has ascended into heaven, Jesus the Son of God, let us hold firmly to the faith we profess" ( Heb. 4:14 ). He also said, "But when Christ came as high priest of the good things that are now already here, he went through the greater and more perfect tabernacle that is not made with human hands, that is to say, is not a part of this creation" ( Heb. 9:11 ). This is because God anointed Jesus to be Israel's high priest, one who perfectly kept the Law of Moses: "The high priest, the one among his brothers who has had the anointing oil poured on his head and who has been ordained to wear the priestly garments, must not let his hair become unkempt or tear his clothes" ( Lev. 21:10 ). While God anointed the former high priests of Israel until death, Jesus' service lasts forever. Neither did Jesus have to offer sacrifices for sin, a requirement for other priests because they were fallen people li ke the rest of us ( Heb. 7:23–28 ). ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Holy One of God ​ The title "Holy One of God" only occurs once in the New Testament in a positive context: "Simon Peter answered him, 'Lord, to whom shall we go? You have the words of eternal life. We have come to believe and to know that you are the Holy One of God'" ( John 6:68–69 ). The Greek adjective hagios ( G40 ), often translated as "holy" or "saint," refers to something that God set apart. The fuller title, "Holy One of God," implies that God appointed Jesus above all others. This designation corresponds with "Holy One of Israel," a common Old Testament title for God himself (e.g., Ps. 71:22 ). Therefore, "Holy One" implies Jesus' divinity as well as his sacredness. ​ Paleo-Christian Press I Am ​ Sometimes, critics argue that Jesus never claimed to be divine. To the contrary, he asserted: "Very truly I tell you, before Abraham was born, I Am!" ( John 8:58 ). Jesus identified himself with God's most holy name, YHWH (H3068), derived from the Hebrew phrase Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh ("I AM WHO I AM ," Exod. 3:14 ). Also, he claimed to be eternal and without beginning. The Jewish leaders understood Jesus' statement well and wanted to execute him for blasphemy ( John 8:59 ). God revealed his name to Moses at Mount Sinai. ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Immanuel ​ The name Immanuel ( H6005 ) means "God with us" and appears only twice in the Old Testament, notably in Isaiah 7:14 : "Therefore the L ORD himself will give you a sign: The virgin will conceive and give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel." Matthew quoted this verse when he wrote, "All this took place to fulfill what the Lord had said through the prophet: 'The virgin will conceive and give birth to a son, and they will call him Immanuel'" ( Matt. 1:22–23 ). This verse is where we derive the teaching of Mary's virgin birth of Jesus, although scholars debate whether to translate the Hebrew noun almah ( H5959 ) as "young woman" or "virgin." Matthew used the Septuagint, which rendered it as parthenos ( G3933 ), identifying Mary as a literal virgin rather than just a young woman. Immanuel means "God with us," allowing us to approach him boldly in the name of Jesus. ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com King of the Jews ​ Christians know "King of the Jews" as the title that Pontius Pilate ascribed to Jesus during his trial and crucifixion ( John 18:33 , 19:3–21 ). However, the wise men first called the infant Jesus the "King of the Jews" when they saw the star of Bethlehem ( Matt. 2:2 ). This title identifies Jesus ethnically and religiously as a Jew and the Davidic monarch for all of Israel. When the wise men called Jesus the "King of the Jews," it offended Herod, the de facto king of the Jews appointed by the Romans ( Matt. 1:1–12 ). Jesus arrived as the King of the Jews de jure , the rightful heir to the throne of David. Courtesy of www.FreeBibleImages.com Lamb of God / Good Shepherd ​ At first glance, it seems like a contradiction of terms to call Jesus both a lamb and a shepherd. These christological titles refer to separate analogies and are not mutually exclusive. To say that Jesus is the "Lamb of God" is to know how the Father sent him to atone for our sins ( John 1:29 , 36 ). When Jesus identified himself as the Good Shepherd, he claimed to be the epitome of good leadership for all of Israel ( John 10:1–14 ). ​ Lucija Logos / Word of God ​ The evangelist John testified, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God" ( John 1:1 ). Theologians from the post-apostolic age to modern scholarship have focused entirely on the Greek philosophical meaning of this verse. However, as a Jew, John had Genesis 1 in mind when God created the universe by mere speech. Jesus, as the Word of God, gives meaning to all things. He is the meaning of all things in the universe: "In the past, God spoke through the prophets to our ancestors in many times and many ways. In these final days, though, he spoke to us through a Son. God made his Son the heir of everything and created the world through him. The Son is the light of God's glory and the imprint of God's being. He maintains everything with his powerful message" ( Heb. 1:1–3 ). The Greek noun Logos ( G3056 , "Word") implies that Jesus is the absolute law—both scientific and moral—and the definition of the universe. ​ Paleo-Christian Press Lord ​ The titles "lord" and "master" often imply toxic leadership and abuse. We live in societies without lords and masters; instead, we have supervisors and managers. In our representative democracies, we understand that our bosses must earn their positions, and they can subsequently lose them at any time. However, when we call Jesus "Lord" (Greek: Kurios ; G2962 ), it follows the ancient tradition that leadership is by inheritance and divine right. For now, God allows human beings the freedom to recognize Jesus as Lord on their own volition. However, the apostle Paul warned: "Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father" ( Phil. 2:9–11 ). ​ Joshua J. Cotten Messiah / Christ ​ The Hebrew Mashiach and the Greek Christos mean "anointed one." These words refer to the anointing ceremony for kings and Levitical priests in Israel, which involved the use of sacred oil. The ingredients for this anointing oil included myrrh, cinnamon, aromatic cane, cassia, and olive oil ( Exod. 30:22–26 ). The implication of calling Jesus "Messiah" and "Christ" is the acknowledgment of his priesthood and kingship. While many first-century Jews considered the Messiah to be a king or a military leader, they failed to recognize his priestly office ( John 6:14–16 ). Even the Romans understood Messiah as "king" ( John 18:33–37 ). The author of Hebrews wrote: In the same way, Christ did not take on himself the glory of becoming a high priest. But God said to him, "You are my Son; today I have become your Father." And he says in another place, "You are a priest forever, in the order of Melchizedek" ( Heb. 5:5–6 ; cf. Ps. 2:7 , 110:4 ). ​ Paleo-Christian Press Paraclete / Advocate & Comforter ​ The Greek noun Paraklētos ( G3875 ) refers to an advocate or comforter who makes the right call because he is close to the situation. In other words, the Paraclete gets it right during "close calls." Jesus himself told his disciples that he would send the Paraclete, that is, the Holy Spirit, once he ascended to God ( John 14:16 , 26 , 15:26 , 16:7 ). However, John also called Jesus himself a paraclete when he wrote, "My dear children, I write this to you so that you will not sin. But if anybody does sin, we have an advocate with the Father—Jesus Christ, the Righteous One. He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins, and not only for ours but also for the sins of the whole world" ( 1 John 2:1–2 ). John understood that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are co-equal persons of God in the Trinity. ​ Paleo-Christian Press Prophet ​ The Greek noun prophētēs ( G4396 ) means "spokesperson." In its ancient context, writers applied the word to spokespeople for various kings and other political leaders. If the speaker did not present peace terms to an enemy king, for example, his king would execute him for treason. Likewise, the Law of Moses mandated the death penalty for all false prophets ( Deut. 13:5 ). Since a prophet in Israel was considered God's spokesman, the Lord forbade them from altering their message. Jesus is God's most righteous prophet, never testifying about himself but always for the Father ( John 5:30–47 ). The scriptures do not leave us without knowledge about prophets. About a false one, God says, "If what a prophet proclaims in the name of the L ORD does not take place or come true, that is a message the L ORD has not spoken. That prophet has spoken presumptuously, so do not be alarmed" ( Deut. 18:22 ). About a true prophet, God says, "But the prophet who prophesies peace will be recognized as one truly sent by the L ORD only if his prediction comes true" ( Jer. 28:9 ). ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Rabbi & Teacher ​ The Hebrew word rabbi ( H7231 , rabab ) means "great in number," referring to the number of facts learned by a Jewish teacher. Today, rabbis spend many years in yeshiva or seminary studying the entire compendium of Jewish written tradition. We Christians often assume Jesus did not have to learn in a formal setting. However, there is no contradiction in saying Jesus' rabbinical education represents his human nature while God inspired his divine nature. ​ Courtesy of www.LumoProject.org Savior / Redeemer ​ The titles of "Savior" and "Redeemer" beg the question of "What does Jesus save/redeem us from?" While many of us would quickly answer it with "from hell," there is much more to salvation than just some eternal fire insurance. We receive salvation by having a relationship with God, our Creator. Paul wrote: But God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us. Since we have now been justified by his blood, how much more shall we be saved from God's wrath through him! For if, while we were God's enemies, we were reconciled to him through the death of his Son, how much more, having been reconciled, shall we be saved through his life! ( Rom. 5:8–10 ). We moderns erroneously believe we are entitled to God's steadfast love when, in fact, we deserve his swift justice ( Rom. 3:9–20 ). By his grace and forgiveness of our grave sins, we may dare approach God through his Son, our Lord, Jesus Christ. The Greek noun sōtēr ( G4990 , "savior," "deliverer," or "preserver") comes from the verb sōzō ( G4982 ), which can be translated as "to save," "to heal," or "to cure" ( Matt. 1:21 , 9:22 ). ​ PhotoGranary Son of David ​ The messianic title "Son of David" refers to the royal lineage of David, the ancient king of Israel. It also refers to Jesus' actual genealogy and the monarchial authority entrusted to him by God ( Matt 1:1 , 12:23 , 21:9 , 22:42 ; Luke 1:32 ). ​ Laughing Cat & Sunguk Kim Son of God ​ By calling Jesus the "Son of God," we must not assume that we recognize his divinity. Our Jewish brethren remind us that the phrase "son of God" appears in the Old Testament in a few contexts: 1) When the Nephilim existed and the "sons of God" impregnated women ( Gen. 6:2–4 ), 2) When God told Moses to warn Pharaoh: "This is what the L ORD says: Israel is my firstborn son" ( Exod. 4:22 ), 3) When God set apart Israel as his chosen people ( Deut. 14:1–2 ), 4) When the author of Job called the angelic council of heaven "sons of God" ( Job 1:6 , 2:1 ); When God referred to King Solomon as his son ( 2 Sam. 7:14 ), and 5) When the prophet Hosea called the entire nation of Israel the "son" of God" ( Hos. 11:1 ). ​ However, the New Testament writers referred to Jesus as the "Son of God." They described Jesus as the Son of God par excellence, using this title. Nevertheless, he is the "one and only Son of God" (Greek: monogenēs Huios tou Theou ; G3439 , G5207 , G3588 , G2316 ), a crucial distinction in that only Jesus shares God's divinely essential DNA. John used this full title for Jesus when he wrote, "Whoever believes in him is not condemned, but whoever does not believe stands condemned already because they have not believed in the name of God's one and only Son" ( John 3:18 ). ​ Paleo-Christian Press Son of Man ​ The title "Son of Man" was Jesus' favorite in the gospels, which translates the Hebrew phrase Ben Adam ( H1121 , H120 ; lit. "son of Adam"). However, the prophet Daniel wrote the "Son of Man" title in Aramaic ( Bar Enash , H1247 , H606 ) when he testified: ​ In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a Son of Man, coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days and was led into his presence. He was given authority, glory and sovereign power; all nations and peoples of every language worshiped him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and his kingdom is one that will never be destroyed ( Dan. 7:13–14 ). ​ Jesus preferred "Son of Man" because it best represented his inauguration of God's kingdom and the apocalyptic dimensions of the Messiah. He expressed this concept, especially in the parable of the weeds among the wheat: "As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age. The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil. They will throw them into the blazing furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth" ( Matt. 13:40–42 ). ​ Paleo-Christian Press Son of Mary (As a Title of Christology) ​ Mark 6:3 ("'Isn't this the carpenter? Isn't this Mary's son and the brother of James, Joseph, Judas, and Simon? Aren't his sisters here with us?' And they took offense at him") is the only place in the New Testament where anyone calls Jesus "Mary's son." However, this identification of Jesus as the "son of Mary" became an essential doctrine at the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451. The church leaders published the Definition of Chalcedon, granting Mary the Greek title Theotokos ( G2316 , G5110 ), "God-bearer." They decided on Theotokos rather than Christotokos , "Christ-bearer," to defend Jesus' co-eternal divinity with the Father. ​ Daniel Sandvik Suffering Servant ​ One of the main reasons Jews still object to Jesus being their Messiah is that they reject the "suffering servant" motif we Christians take for granted. We receive the concept from the prophet Isaiah, who described a suffering servant ( Isa. 52:13–53:12 ). This is not a random interpretation for us Christians. The evangelist Philip of Jerusalem read this passage to an Ethiopian eunuch and explained that Isaiah had explicitly written about Jesus as the Messiah, the suffering servant ( Acts 8:26–40 ). Most first-century Jews, who suffered under four different major empires, believed that Isaiah had written about Israel and hoped for a military or political leader who would defeat their enemies and establish a literal Jewish kingdom. However, the early Christians understood the Messiah to be a humble man who would give up his own life to save all people, not just Israel. This message is the gospel we preach. Courtesy of www.LumoProject.com Conclusion Exploring the different titles of Jesus helps us better understand who he is, what he does, and why he is vital in the Christian faith. Titles like "Alpha and Omega" demonstrate his eternal nature, "Great High Priest" highlights his role in connecting people to God, and "Holy One of God" underscores his divine nature. These names are more than just words from history or church teaching—they are central to what Christians believe and how we grow in faith. By studying these titles, we gain a deeper understanding of Jesus' purpose and strengthen our knowledge and relationship with Him. ​ Ben White Prayer ​ Blessed are you, L ORD our God, King of the universe; by the resurrection of Jesus on the first day of the week, you conquered sin, put death to flight, and gave us the hope of everlasting life: Redeem all our days by this victory; forgive our sins, banish our fears, make us bold to praise you and to do your will; and steel us to wait for the consummation of your kingdom on the last great day; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord. Amen.​ Bibliography ​ Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006.​ ​ Bivin, David N. "'Prophet' as a Messianic Title." Jerusalem Perspective 2 ( 1987): 3–4 . link . ​ Book of Common Prayer . Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. ​ Buth, Randall. "'Son of Man': Jesus' Most Important Title." Jerusalem Perspective 3, no. 2 (1990): 11–15. link . ​ Dobson, Kent. NIV First-Century Study Bible: Explore Scripture in Its Jewish and Early Christian Context . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014. ​ Himma, Kenneth Einar. "Design Arguments for the Existence of God." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy . University of Tennessee at Martin. link . ​ Kaiser, Walter C., Jr., and Duane Garrett, eds. NIV Archaeological Study Bible: An Illustrated Walk Through Biblical History and Culture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. ​ Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, eds. NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016. ​ Lewis, C. S. Mere Christianity . San Francisco: HarperOne, 2015. ​ McDaniel, Debbie. "50 Names and Titles of Jesus: Who the Bible Says Christ Is." Crosswalk. December 1, 2016. link . ​ Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020. ​ Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019.